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Wagner College Forum for
Undergraduate Research
Fall 2003
Volume II, Number 1
Wagner College Press
Staten Island, New York City
��EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION
In response to many requests, an additional section containing the abstracts of papers and
posters presented at the 57th Eastern Colleges Science Conference has been added to this
issue. The conference was held in Ithaca, NY on April 11-12, 2003. It is the largest
undergraduate research conference in the United States. Wagner College has, in recent
years, been a strong contributor to this annual event and in 2000 hosted ECSC.
Congratulations to the students and faculty for their excellent work and the fine job they
did representing Wagner College.
The Wagner Forum for Undergraduate Research, now in its second year, is an
interdisciplinary journal which provides an arena where students can publish their
research. Papers are reviewed with respect to their intellectual merit and scope of
contribution to a given field. To enhance readability the journal is typically subdivided
into three sections entitled The Natural Sciences, The Social Sciences and Critical
Essays. The first of these two sections are limited to papers and abstracts dealing with
scientific investigations (experimental and theoretical). The third section is reserved for
speculative papers based on the scholarly review and critical examination of previous
works.
This issue contains a variety of fascinating topics including aircraft icing, crystal growth,
the triangular theory of romantic relationships, arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh, garlic
and wound healing, MRI contrast agents and the development and maturation of van
Gogh’s artwork. The interested reader will be challenged with questions such as:
Does the fat content label effect a person’s consumption of a particular food?
Is Pluto a Planet?
Does the MMR vaccination contribute to or cause autism?
Who are the Disney characters many people grow up admiring and how do they
represent the people of the world?
Read on and enjoy!
Gregory Falabella and Richard Brower, Editors
�Section I: Eastern Colleges Science Conference
Abstracts
2 Redefining Love: The Interrelations Between Love, Attachment Styles
and the Triangular Theory of Romantic Relationships
Jaime T. Carreno
2 Deep Aquifer Water as Alternate Drinking Water Source in Arsenic
Affected Area of Bangladesh
Margaret Fiasconaro, Sarah Alauddin and Dr. Mohammad Alauddin
3 Aircraft Icing: An Experimental Study
Nicolas Rada and Dr. Gregory J. Falabella
3 Effect of Complexing Agent on TIO2 Hydrothermal Crystal Growth
Dawn Pothier and Dr. Maria C. Gelabert
4 The Effect of Fat Content Label on Food Intake
Joanna Ferreri and Dr. Laurence J. Nolan
4 Ion Chromatography Analysis of Deep Aquifer Water from Arsenic
Affected Areas of Bangladesh
Sarah Alauddin, Margaret Fiasconaro and Dr. Mohammad Alauddin
5 Transcardial Perfusion of Zebrafish Brain
Matthew W. Gray, Adam James, Prof. Linda Raths and Dr. Zoltan L. Fulop
5 Hydrothermal Crystal Growth of Zinc Oxide Via Coordination Chemistry
Dana M. Romano and Dr. Maria C. Gelabert
6
Pluto: Captured Comet or Legitimate Planet
Michelle Bingham and Dr. Gregory J. Falabella
6
Validation of the Folk Remedy Garlic (Allium Sativum) in Wound
Healing
Katherine LaChance, Christopher Hart and Dr. Ellen Perry
6 The Relationship Between Teachers’ Physical Attractiveness and
Student Ratings of Their Effectiveness
Kerri Doran
ii
�7 An Experimental Study of Shoaling Behavior In ZebraFish (Danio
Rerio)
Janette Lebron, Dr. Brian G. Palestis and Dr. Zoltan Fulop
7
Physiological Responses to Guided Relaxation
Teresa Jackson, Carolyn Palinkas, Robert Liberto, ParamPreet Ghuman, Dr. Zohreh
Shahvar and Dr. Zoltan Fulop
8 Alcohol-Induced Malformations in Zebrafish Embryos: Zebrafish as a
Model Animal to Study Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Jacqueline Whittenburg and Renee Sudol
Section II: The Sciences
Full Length Papers
10
Investigation of Iron (III)-based MRI Contrast Agents
Maryanne Gaul
20
Pluto: Captured Comet or Legitimate Planet?
Michelle Bingham
26
Autism and the MMR Vaccination
Stephanie Capasso
Section III: The Social Sciences
Full Length Papers
36
The Effects of Conscious Sedation on Anxiety in Oral Surgery
Patients
Dina Gramegna
43
Redefining Love: The Interrelations between Love, Attachment
Styles and the Triangular Theory of Romantic Relationships
Jaime T. Carreno
53
Memory: Effects of One’s Gender on Memory Retention
Nicole Gaeta
iii
�59
GPA and Study Habits: The Relationship between Study-Habits
and Grade Point Average in College Students
Jenny Ludvigsen
Section IV: Critical Essays
Full Length Papers
68
Van Gogh and Gauguin
Kimberly Kopko
76
Housewife to an Empowered War Hero: The Feministic
Transformation of the Disney Princesses
Kimberly Litto
86
Why Rules are Made to be Broken: The Establishment and
Destruction of the Institution in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s
Stone and Ender’s Shadow
Paula Casill
iv
�Section I: Eastern Colleges
Science Conference
�Redefining Love: The Interrelations Between Love,
Attachment Styles and the Triangular Theory
Of Romantic Relationships1
Jaime T. Carreno2 (Psychology)
Three popular theories of love were brought together, in an attempt to better understand
this concept. The interrelations between triangular love type, love styles, and adult
attachment styles were of primary interest. One hundred college students were surveyed.
Relationships were found within love styles and within triangular love theory
components. Relationships were also found between love styles and the triangular theory
and between age and levels of commitment in relationships. Lastly a relationship was
found between attachment styles and triangular love type. The interrelations of these
three major love theories seem to suggest an underlining essence of love. We seem to be
on the path to a more encompassing definition of love. Finally, a new definition of love
is proposed.
Deep Aquifer Water as Alternate Drinking Water Source in
Arsenic Affected Area of Bangladesh
Margaret Fiasconaro (Chemistry), Sarah Alauddin (Chemistry)
and Dr. Mohammad Alauddin (Chemistry)
Most serious arsenic contamination from natural sources have been reported from
Bangladesh, India, Taiwan, Chile, Argentina and inner Mongolia. Experts now believe
the arsenic calamity in Bangladesh is the worst mass poisoning the world has ever
witnessed. Bangladesh is a country of 148,400 square kilometers in an area with a
population of about 120 million. About 97% of the total population depends on ground
water as their principal source of drinking water. Abundant surface water is
contaminated with microorganisms and people died of cholera, typhoid and diarrhea
through consumption of this water. Aid organizations came forward and helped the local
government in tapping the underground water at shallow depths of 40-100 ft which is free
of microorganisms. The water was withdrawn by hand pump and metal tubes drilled into
these aquifers. The vast population had access to safe drinking. However, in recent years
(1993) the water has been found to be contaminated with arsenic at a level much higher
than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) permissible level of 10 g/l and
1
2
Received Best Platform Presentation in Psychology Award
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Amy Eshleman (Psychology)
2
�Bangladesh’s own guideline value of 50g/l. Lately it was indicated by researchers and
surveyors that aquifers at a depth of 300 ft or greater have arsenic at acceptable level by
WHO standard. In our current project we have analyzed water samples from 29 such
deep tube wells from two areas of Bangladesh. In addition to arsenic, water samples
were analyzed for a number of trace elements and basic water quality parameters to check
the water quality of these aquifers. Technique of graphite furnace atomic absorption
spectrometry (GR-AAS) was applied and As, Ba, B, Fe, Mn, Pb, Cd, Co and Cr were
determined at ultra trace level. We find the deep aquifer waters (depth of 600 ft or
beyond) are quite safe for public consumption. Our findings and some inter-element
correlation data will be presented in this paper.
Aircraft Icing: An Experimental Study3
Nicolas Rada (Physics) and Dr. Gregory J. Falabella (Physics)
Relatively small amounts of ice buildup on aircraft can alter the otherwise smooth flow of
air and have disastrous consequences. This accumulation may occur due to precipitation
or passage through a cloud containing super-cooled water droplets and is categorized as
rime or glaze ice. The current research is an experimental investigation into how the
presence of a glaze ice accretion dramatically reduces the lift force necessary for stable
flight. A FLOTEK 1440 Wind Tunnel and a NACA 2415 airfoil is used to obtain the
data. Preliminary results indicate that stall occurs at a significantly lower angle of attack
and is sensitive to changes in Reynolds number as the transition from laminar to turbulent
flow occurs.
Effect of Complexing Agent of TIO Hydrothermal
Crystal Growth
Dawn Pothier (Chemistry) and Dr. Maria C. Gelabert (Chemistry)
Aqueous titanium chemistry was explored to gain understanding for how chelating agents
affect hydrothermal crystal growth. By varying concentration, pH, and ligand, TiO2
o
crystals were grown kept at 200 C for seven days. Observations (1000x) were made
with a compound microscope. Needle-shaped crystals were observed when ethylene
diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) was used and the pH was between 9 and 13; higher
concentrations yielded larger crystals. Experiments with diethylenetriamine pentaacetic
3
Received Best Platform Presentation in Physics, Astronomy and Engineering Award
3
�acid (DTPA) and imino diacetic acid (IDA) did not yield sizable crystals with a
determinable shape. Experiments enabling the slow decomposition of urea, and hence
slow rise of pH, did not generally produce needle-shaped crystals. However, one sample
did yield crystals that were slightly larger and longer than previously observed needles.
The Effect of Fat Content Label on Food Intake
Joanna Ferreri (Psychology) and Dr. Laurence J. Nolan (Psychology)
Food labels and beliefs about the nutritional content of foods have been found to affect
food choice and meal size (Gatenby et al., 1995; Mela & Nolan, 1996; Miller et al.,
1998). We tested whether a label indicating total calories and fat grams contained in a
granola bar would affect the amount of subsequent macaroni and cheese consumption and
food ratings (questionnaire). All participants received the same foods; one half were
randomly assigned to receive granola labeled “no fat”. All participants were asked to
complete the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire prior to the meal so that the role dietary
restraint could also be tested (2 X 2 design).
Ion Chromatography Analysis of Deep Aquifer Water from
Arsenic Affected Areas of Bangladesh4
Sarah Alauddin (Chemistry), Margaret Fiasconaro (Chemistry)
and Dr. Mohammad Alauddin (Chemistry)
Bangladesh is in the grip of worst mass poisoning the world has ever witnessed. The
poisoning is taking place from drinking arsenic laced groundwater. About 97% of a total
population of 120 million depend on groundwater for their primary source of drinking
water. Although the permissible level of arsenic is 50µg/l by Bangladesh standard and
only 10µg/l by World Health Organization (WHO), the level of arsenic in seriously
affected areas in Bangladesh ranges from 500 to almost 4000 µg/l. Arsenic is a
carcinogenic agent. There is an urgent need for finding alternate sources of water.
Recently it was reported that deep tube well waters (aquifers at depths of 300 ft or more)
may still provide arsenic safe drinking water for millions. We analyzed 29 deep tube
well waters from two regions of Bangladesh. We investigated the water quality of these
aquifers by advanced techniques of graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy and
4
Received Best Platform Presentation in Chemistry Award
4
�ion-chromatography. In addition to arsenic and other toxic trace elements we also
32investigated the levels of F , Cl , Br , NO3, NO2, PO4 and SO4 . While the deep aquifer
water is “arsenic safe” it may contain other toxic agents or high F . Objective of the
current project was to investigate the level of fluoride and other ions in deep tube well
waters. We found that the deep tube well water is good quality water, and this water may
be an excellent alternative to arsenic contaminated shallow tube well water for the time
being.
Transcardial Perfusion of Zebrafish Brain
Matthew W. Gray (Biology), Adam James (Biology),
Prof. Linda Raths (Biology) and Dr. Zoltan L. Fulop (Biology)
Correct ultra-structural investigation of the central nervous system requires vascular
perfusion of the brain with fixative solution. This technique, preceded by cleaning the
vasculature from the blood by an isotonic solution, is widely practiced to fix the brain of
mammals. The aim of this study was to employ similar procedures to fix the adult
zebrafish brain. We developed a perfusion station equipped with a micromanipulatorstage that allows the precision insertion of a glass micropipette into the cardiac ventricle
of the zebrafish and infusion of the solutions into the brain vasculature through the
ventral aorta. This procedure resulted in perfect fixation of the brain verifiable by
successive morphological investigation. This study was supported by a research grant
from Drs. Eva and George Megerle.
Hydrothermal Crystal Growth of Zinc Oxide
Via Coordination Chemistry
Dana M. Romano (Chemistry) and Dr. Maria C. Gelabert (Chemistry)
The chemistry of aqueous zinc solutions was explored to see the effect on size and
morphology of zinc oxide crystals. Multidentate ligands such as ethylene diamine tetra
acetic acid (EDTA), diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) and imino diacetic acid
(IDA) were investigated separately in the growth of ZnO crystals. In this study,
complexing agent, Zn molality and pH were varied in the precipitation of ZnO from basic
o
aqueous solutions. Autoclaves were used for synthesis at 200 C. Optical microscopy on
the resulting products revealed crystals with a needle habit for all ligands, with needle
lengths up to 3mm. The overall variation in size and morphology may be explained to
some degree by considering the coordinating nature of the ligands.
5
�Pluto: Captured Comet or Legitimate Planet
Michelle Bingham (English) and Dr. Gregory J. Falabella (Physics)
Prompted by the recent controversy over Pluto’s classification as a planet, a study was
conducted to determine whether or not a large Kuiper Belt comet could have strayed too
close to Neptune and had its orbit forever changed to that of present day Pluto. The
resulting three-body problem was set up and simulated numerically using Interactive
PhysicsTM. Results show that the situation is indeed plausible, but only under certain
circumstances, which explains why other comets did not experience a similar fate.
Validation of the Folk Remedy Garlic
(Allium Sativum) in Wound Healing5
Katherine LaChance (Psychology), Christopher Hart (Chemistry)
and Dr. Ellen Perry (Biology)
Garlic (Allium sativum), a well-documented antibacterial spice, was investigated for its
anti-microbial properties in wound healing. Environmental bacterial sources were plated
on agar containing 0-50% of a 125g/l preparation of fresh, crushed garlic either soaked
(24 hours), infused (20 minutes) or boiled (10 minutes) in distilled water, then incubated
at either ambient or body temperature. A dose-responsive efficacy of garlic to inhibit
microbial growth was observed. The anti-microbial efficiency of garlic decreased with
heating (LD50=1% in soaked preparation, 5% in infused preparation and 10% in boiled
preparation at ambient temperature). Microbes were identified to demonstrate the dose at
which inhibition of growth occurred. The data validates the folk-medicinal wound
healing properties of garlic through anti-microbial action.
The Relationship Between Teachers’ Physical
Attractiveness and Student Ratings of Their Effectiveness
Kerri Doran6 (Psychology)
It is postulated that to be beautiful is to accrue various interpersonal advantages and
foster positive expectations. This study explored the relationship between teachers’
physical attractiveness and students’ ratings of their effectiveness. Fifty-eight second
5
6
Received Best Platform Presentation in Ecology and Botany Award
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Amy Eshleman (Psychology)
6
�graders from a public elementary school participated in this study, which measured their
ratings of two target teachers after a poem was read to them. The study supported the
hypothesis that the students rated the physically attractive teacher higher on four of six
measures of overall fondness of and effectiveness. A follow-up study was conducted
using third, fifth, and seventh grade students.
An Experimental Study of Shoaling Behavior
In ZebraFish (Danio Rerio)
Janette Lebron (Biology), Dr. Brian G. Palestis (Biology) and Dr. Zoltan Fulop (Biology)
Zebrafish shoaling was quantified by comparing time spent by test fish near a
compartment containing a stimulus fish to time spent near an empty compartment. The
two compartments were located at opposite ends of a narrow tank, and only visual cues
were available. Test fish spent significantly more time near stimulus fish than near the
empty compartment, in both same-sex (p<0.05) and opposite-sex pairings (p<0.01).
Interestingly, in both males (p<0.025) and females (p<0.05), shoaling was significantly
more frequent in same-sex than in opposite-sex pairings. However, our experiments took
place in the afternoon, while zebrafish spawn after dawn. Eventually we plan to study
the effects of alcohol exposure on the development of shoaling behavior in young zebra
fish.
Physiological Responses to Guided Relaxation
Teresa Jackson (Biology), Carolyn Palinkas (Mathematics), Robert Liberto (Chemistry),
ParamPreet Ghuman (Biology), Dr. Zohreh Shahvar (Mathematics) and Dr. Zoltan Fulop
(Biology)
Subjects were exposed for 20 min to a structured relaxation tape (H. Benson. Guided
Relaxation, Mind/Body Medical Institute, Boston, MA) or to an indifferent audiotape of a
historical story (War Letters) while physiological parameters were continuously recorded
by a computer assisted device (MP 30, BioPac Inc.) . All subjects then listened to their
tapes for twenty minutes twice daily for 28 days after which similar recordings were
repeated. Statistical analysis of skin temperature revealed significant differences between
the experimental and control subjects at all time-points in both sessions. However, no
significant differences were found between the same parameters of the experimental
subjects listening first time to their tape or after a month long training. These data
7
�suggest that the relaxation response can be elicited with a right tape indifferent from prior
learning or practice.
Alcohol-Induced Malformations in Zebrafish Embryos:
Zebrafish as a Model Animal to Study
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome7,8
Jacqueline Whittenburg (Biology), Renée Sudol (Nursing),
Prof. Linda Raths (Biology) and Dr. Zoltan Fulop (Biology)
The goal of this study was to determine the lowest ethyl alcohol (ETOH) concentration
that causes detectable detrimental effects in zebrafish embryos, and the most critical time
of embryonic development that is sensitive to alcohol. Observation of these embryos
revealed a number of different morphological changes. These were either teratological
effects, such as small heads with distorted craniofacial features, curved spine and
distended abdomens or physiological disturbances such as impaired movements, inability
to maintain postures and inability to capture prey. This study establishes zebrafish as a
model animal to study fetal alcohol syndrome.
7
Received Outstanding Paper in Developmental Biology Award
For a reprint of the entire paper see Wagner College Forum For Undergraduate
Research Volume 1, Number 2, Spring 2003.
8
8
�Section II: The Natural Sciences
�Investigation of Iron (III)-based MRI Contrast Agents
Maryanne Gaul1 (Chemistry)
I. Introduction
Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging is a medical procedure that allows for
examination of a patient via a non invasive method (1). MR imaging of vascular
structures is very important within the medical field for purposes of diagnosing diseased
tissues. Many diseases can be detected by abnormalities in vascular structure, vascular
density, or microvascular permeability. Conditions that result in hemorrhage such as
ulcers or traumatic injuries can be detected by increased vascular density in the MR
image. Other conditions like angiogenesis and tumors can also be diagnosed using MR
images that show abnormal vascular growth and vascular permeability (2).
The dependence of image intensity on tissue relaxation times is inherent on the
basic principles of pulse nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) (3). An MR image is
generated where the signal intensity is either a function of proton density, the spin-lattice
relaxation rate (T1), spin-spin relaxation rate (T2) or a combination of these factors. A
problem with the generated images is that it is difficult to differentiate between adjacent
tissue types (and thus provide an accurate diagnosis). To overcome this problem contrast
agents have been developed. Contrast agents work by changing the signal intensity of the
local tissues allowing better differentiation of healthy and diseased tissue (1).
MR imaging contrast agents must be biocompatible pharmaceuticals in addition
to being nuclear relaxation probes. Aside from standard pharmaceutical features such as
water solubility and shelf stability, there are requirements relevant for metal complexbased agents. One is the efficiency with which the complex enhances the proton
relaxation rates of water, also referred to as relaxivity (a measure of relaxation
enhancement per unit concentration). This must be sufficient to significantly increase the
relaxation rates of target tissue. The dose of the complex at which such alteration of
tissue relaxation rates occurs must of course be nontoxic (3). Another requirement for
true diagnostic value is that the complex should localize for a period of time in a target
tissue or tissue compartment in preference to non–target regions. This requirement is
qualified in that it is sufficient that only the relaxation rates of the target tissues be
enhanced in preference to other tissues. This might be accomplished by means other than
1
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Nicholas Richardson (Chemistry)
10
�concentration differences if the complex has a higher relaxivity in the environment of one
tissue (3).
Three more essential prerequisites are in vivo stability, excreatability and again
lack of toxicity (3). Toxicity data are often dependent on the species of animal as well as
the route of administration, including intravenous and intraperotineal injections. The
acute and chronic toxicity of an intravenously administered metal complex is related in
part to its stability in vivo and its tissue clearance behavior. As the transition metal and
lanthanide ions are relatively toxic at doses required for NMR relaxation rate changes, the
dissociation of the complex cannot occur to any significant degree. Additionally a
diagnostic agent should be excreted within hours of administration (3).
Complexes of paramagnetic transition metal and lanthanide ions, which decrease
the relaxation times of nearby nuclei, receive the most attention as potential contrast
agents. Gadolinium(III), iron(III), and manganese(II) complexes have received the most
attention because of their high magnetic moments and relaxation efficiency (3). Current
MRI contrast agents in clinical use utilize gadolinium(III) as the paramagnet, which is
effective due to the seven unpaired electrons it possesses. Iron(III) and manganese(II)
only posses 5 unpaired electrons and the relaxivity of complexes using these as
paramagnetic species are significantly lower compared to gadolinium. However, it has
been shown that when contrast agents based upon these metal ions are bound to human
serum albumin (HSA) they can have relaxivities that are equivalent to those reported for
gadolinium complexes also bound to HSA. Although gadolinium works as an effective
paramagnet, there are some serious drawbacks. The first is that gadolinium has no natural
biochemistry, thus making it difficult to harness known biochemistry in the design of a
target-specific contrast agent. Second, there are growing environmental concerns about
the use of gadolinium as a contrast agent. If iron(III) could be employed as the
paramagnet, with its rich natural biochemistry and limited concerns about environmental
impact, it could be as effective as gadolinium-based contrast agent when bound to HSA
(1).
Another problem associated with the currently used paramagnetic-based contrast
agents approved for clinical use in the U.S. is that they are all extracellular and are
rapidly cleared from the patient, making it difficult to observe any abnormalities present
in the vascular structure. Development of a contrast agent that remains in the blood–pool
for an extended period of time would significantly enhance the ability to detect diseased
tissue.
Blood–pool contrast agents are compounds that remain in circulation for
extended periods of time and do not diffuse into the extracellular fluid. These compounds
are designed to enhance tissue in a manner proportional to their blood volumes (2). One
method that has been examined to create blood–pool contrast agents is to attach the
11
�contrast agent to a macromolecule (5). Macromolecular contrast media (MMCM) are
compounds that are significantly larger (>20,000 Daltons) than conventional clinical
contrast agents and demonstrate prolonged intravascular retention. As noted before the
relaxivity of a contrast agent is a measure of its effectiveness, and one of the significant
influences upon the relaxivity is the rotational tumbling rate (also called the molecular
rotation rate) of a contrast agent (2). However, the measurement of the in vitro relaxivity
of the contrast agent may not provide a direct correlation to the in vivo relaxivity (4).
Changes in viscosity of a solution slow this tumbling and increase relaxivity. Another
way the tumbling rate of a molecule may be changed is by attachment to a
macromolecule (4). The development of MMCM and other blood–pool contrast agents is
very important as these compounds can be designed to produce the preferential biological
distribution that would allow for better diagnosis of diseased tissue (2).
Unfortunately there are some problems associated with the method of covalently
attaching the contrast agent to a macromolecule to create an injectable MMCM. These
problems include the deposition of the toxic metal ion, incomplete excretion of the
contrast agent and immunogenicity at the sight of administration. These problems
outweigh the potential benefits so an alternative approach is required (1). One strategy
involves the administration of low-molecular weight compounds that form MMCM
in vivo by reversibly binding to plasma proteins, in particular HSA (2). Non-covalent
binding of a low molecular weight contrast agent to a large macromolecule such as HSA
reduces the molecular rotation rate. The decrease in the molecular rotation rate causes
increases nuclear relaxation, this increase in relaxivity due to the slow molecular
rotational rate of the contrast agent attached to a macromolecule compared to that of a
contrast agent alone in solution is termed proton relaxation enhancement effect (PRE)
(2).
HSA is a transport protein that binds a multitude of compounds that vary in
structure and charge. Albumin also remains predominantly in the vascular system and
only 5% of native albumin is removed from the blood in one hour. Therefore the
retention time of the contrast agent will be prolonged and the protein-contrast agent
complex will exhibit characteristics like those of a blood pool agent (2).
Serum albumins are some of the most extensively studied proteins. HSA is the
most abundant protein in plasma and contributes significantly to the osmotic blood
pressure (2). HSA synthesis occurs in the liver and is partly responsible for the
maintenance of the blood pH and the transport of normally insoluble compounds in
plasma such as fatty acids (2). HSA is a large protein that contains 585 residues and has a
total molecular weight of 66,500 Daltons. The protein contains 17 disulfide linkages
12
�Figure I: Human serum albumin
with one free cysteine residue and one tryptophan residue (2). Human serum albumin is
very flexible and allows for the binding of a multitude of substrates with varying
structural features (2).
Iron Agents
5
The high spin d iron(III) ion is an ideal candidate as a MRI contrast agent (4).
Unfortunately iron(III) is toxic in its free form. Acute iron poisoning leads to increased
respiration and pulse rates, as well as congestion of blood vessels. The greatest concern
with iron(III) is the ability of the ion to participate in redox reactions and to catalyze the
oxidation of organic substances (4). This suggests a need for iron(III) ion to be fully
coordinated in vivo (6). In addition to decreasing toxicity, chelating ligands may be
functionalized in order to provide tissue specificity. Unfortunately the complete
coordination of iron(III) removes the possibility of inner–sphere water coordination and
thus increases the distance between the metal center and the water protons, thereby
reducing the effectiveness of the dipolar interaction with the protons (6). This leaves
outer–sphere and second–sphere coordination as the only mechanism for relaxation (4).
The main focus of our study was on the 3,5-disubstiuted sulfonamide catecholate
derivative 3,5-bis(dimethylsulfonamide)catechol as the ligand. If a ligand can be
synthesized that will bind to HSA, there should be a significant increase in the relaxivity
of the iron(III) complex when it is measured in a plasma solution.
13
�II. Procedure
The procedure can be broken down into three stages. The first stage is the
synthesis of novel ligands, the second stage is synthesis of the iron(III) complex with the
new ligands and the third stage is the evaluation of relaxivity and binding of the complex
to HSA (5). To create a complex which will bind to HSA, ligands synthesized have
characteristics of molecules that are already known to bind to HSA but also contain the
requirements to coordinate to iron(III) (5).
This ligand was synthesized by equipping a 1000-ml round bottom flask with a
Claisen adapter, reflux condenser, and an additional funnel. Dimethylamine (52 mL, 40%
in water, 0.410 mol) was dissolved in 100ml diethyl ether and cooled to 0°C in an ice
bath. 3,5-Bis(dichlorosulfonyl)catechol (10.0g, 0.0326 mol) dissolved in 100mL diethyl
ether was added slowly. The reaction was allowed to come to room temperature and stir
overnight. The ether was removed by rotary evaporation. Concentrated HCl (80 mL) was
added to the resulting solid. The aqueous layer was washed with methylene chloride (6 x
150 mL). The methylene chloride was dried over sodium sulfate, filtered and removed by
rotary evaporation. The product was recyrystallized using methylene chloride/hexanases
(1.1g, 0.0034 mol, 10% yield).
For the synthesis of the iron(III) complex the iron(3,5-bis(dimethylsulfonamide)catechol)3 was isolated as a trisodium salt. The ligand (3 mmol) was
dissolved in water. Sodium hydroxide (0.0800 g, 2 mmol) and iron(III)-acac (0.3532 g, 1
mmol) were added and the solution was placed under reflux conditions. After 24 hours of
heating, the solution was allowed to cool and the pH adjusted to 7. The solution was
heated for another 24 hours and the pH again adjusted to 7. The solution was extracted
with diethyl ether (6 x 150 mL). The pH was adjusted to 7, the solution was filtered, and
the solvent was removed. The resulting red solid was dried under vacuum.
Once the contrast agent had been synthesized, the relaxivity was determined by
use of a 20 MHz minispec. The spin-lattice relaxation time (T1) was measured for a series
of solutions of different concentrations, and then a plot was made of 1/T1 against
concentration. The slope of the graph is relaxivity (5).
The iron-3,5 bis(dimethylsulfonamide)catechol (Fe-DiMeSAC) complex was
first measured in vitro with aqueous solution. A 6 mmol solution was prepared (73.05 mg
of complex in 10 mL of distilled H2O), and then a series dilution performed to make the
other concentrations. The samples of different concentration were then allowed to
incubate in a dry bath at 37°C (to simulate body temperature) for a minimum of 10
minutes. After incubation samples were run individually in a Bruker 20 MHz minispec
and T1s were recorded. The inverse of T1 was then plotted against concentration and the
slope measured to give the relaxivity. These samples were then allowed to sit at room
temperature for one week, and then measured again to confirm results.
14
�Human plasma was then purchased from the Red Cross. A 6 mmol solution was
prepared using iron(3,5-Bis(dimethylsulfonamide)catechol) and the plasma. A series
dilution was then carried out. The same methods as those for the aqueous samples were
followed; incubation at 37°C, T1 of all concentrations measured, and then determination
of relaxivity from these data.
III. Results
The spin lattice relaxation time for the aqueous solutions of varying
concentrations increases at the concentration decreases, as predicted. The values are
shown in Table 1:
Concentration (mM)
T1 (ms)
5.25
94.01
4.5
110.5
4.0
122.0
3.0
162.1
1.5
307.2
0.75
558.9
Table 1
The inverse of T1 was plotted against the concentration and the relaxivity was
found to be 1.959 mM-1s-1. The plot of this slope is shown in Figure 2. The spin lattice
relaxation times for the Fe(III) complex in human plasma were lower than those of the
aqueous solutions, as seen in Table 2:
Concentration (mM)
T1 (ms)
6.0
50.90
5.0
59.13
4.0
69.24
3.0
84.10
2.5
96.00
2.0
111.6
1.0
192.0
0.5
374.0
Table 2
15
�0.014
0.012
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Concentration (mM)
Figure 2: Plot of 1/proton relaxation rate against concentration in water
The inverse of T1 was plotted against the concentration and relaxivity in plasma
was found to be 2.978 mM-1s-1. The graph of this data is shown in Figure 3.
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Concentration (mM)
Figure 3: Plot of 1/proton relaxation rate against concentration in human plasma
16
�IV. Discussion
The results of this study support nearly all of our hypotheses. The relaxivity (R1)
of 3,5-Bis(dimethylsulfonamide)catechol increased from 1.959 mM-1s-1 to 2.978 mM-1s-1.
This increase is probably due to the fact that human plasma is a 4.5% HSA solution. This
also shows that this low molecular weight complex [3,5-Bis(dimethylsulfonamide)
catechol] formed a macromolecular contrast media with HSA in vitro.
Table 3 shows some comparative data of other 3,5-disubstituted sulfonamide
catecholate ligands, and a gadolinium based contrast agent. This data was collected by
the Research Laboratories of Schering AG in Berlin, Germany. The relaxivity of iron3,5-Bis(dimethylsulfonamide)catechol is within the same range as the other catechol
derivatives but have greater relaxivites than typical six-coordinate, coordinatively
saturated compounds. Although the relaxivity of the gadolinium based compound was
much greater than the iron based compounds, this research and further research is being
conducted to show that these iron based complexes can be just and effective, if not more
of an effective contrast agent, along with being less toxic and dangerous.
R1 (H2O) (mmol-1s-1)
R1 (plasma) (mmol-1s1
)
2
3
1.9
4
Fe-3,5-bis[di(2methoxyethyl)sulfonamide]catechol
2
3
Fe-3,5Bis(morpholinesulfonamide)catechol
1.9
3.7
Gd-EOB-DTPA
Table 3
5.3
8.7
Compound
Fe-3,5Bis(dimethylsulfonamide)catechol
Fe-3,5Bis(diethylsulfonamide)catechol
The next step in this research process is to determine exactly which site these
ligands bind to on human serum albumin. As mentioned before HSA is a carrier for a
multitude of molecular compounds within the body. Knowledge of approximate location
of the primary sites provides an excellent starting point for docking experiments that can
be used to find the best orientation of the contrast agent and determine residues involved
in the binding interaction (2). Ideally, determination of the crystal structure of HSA with
the bound contrast agent would provide the exact location of the binding sites, identify
17
�the residues involved in the binding, and determine the change in the tertiary structure of
the protein upon binding (2).
V. Conclusions
This research has demonstrated that iron–based contrast agents for MRI are
viable alternatives to gadolinium-based agents in the design of MMCM. One intravenous
and two oral contrast agents utilizing manganese and iron as paramagnets have already
been approved for clinical use in many countries. The natural biochemistry of these
metals makes a greater knowledge base on the distribution of the ions and their
complexes in the body available for researchers to exploit and extend upon, allowing for
development of targeted agents. The inherent low relaxivity of the non-gadolinium-based
contrast agents may be enhanced by designing complexes that interact with serum
proteins and other macromolecules. While it is not known if the relaxivities of nongadolinium-based agents will ever surpass the highest of those of gadolinium-based
agents, the opportunity for targeted, high-relaxivity agents is there (4).
VI. Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the Megerle Foundation for providing financial
support for this research, and the Davies Group at the University of Toledo for supplying
the ligand system.
VII. References
1.
Richardson, N, P. Development of Iron(III) Complexes That Bind to Human Serum
Albumin. The Petroleum Research Fund Grant Application, 2002.
2.
Casper, J, J. In Vivo and In Vitro Evaluation of Metal Chelates as Macromolecular
Contrast Media for Magnetic Resonance Imaging. University of Toledo, 2002.
3.
Lauffer, R, B., Paramagnetic Metal Complexes as Water Proton Relaxation Agents
for NMR Imaging: Theory and Design. Chem. Rev. 1987 87, 901-927.
4.
Schwert, D,D.; Davis, J, A.; Richardson, N, P. Non-Gadolinium-Based MRI Contrast
Agents; in Topics in Current Chemistry, W.Krause, Editor. 2002. Springer-Verlag:
Berlin.
5.
Richardson, N, P. Development of Iron(III)-based Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Contrast Agents That Bind to Plasma Proteins. Cottrell College Science Awards
application, 2000.
6.
Davies, J,A.; Heffner, P,E.; Ji, G.; Keck, R.; Raduchel, B.; Richardson N.; Schwert,
D. Synthesis of 3,5-disubstituted sulfonamide catechol ligands and evaluation of
their Fe(III) Complexes for Use as a Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast
Agents.(in preparation).
18
�7.
Richardson, N.P.; Davies, J.A.; Raduchel, B.; Iron(III)-based Contrast Agents for
Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Polyhedron 1999; 18(19): 2457
19
�Pluto: Captured Comet or Legitimate Planet?1
Michelle Bingham (English) and Dr. Gregory J. Falabella (Physics)
I. Introduction
For as long as I can remember, I have been taught that Pluto is a planet. They
told us Pluto was a planet in the third grade, so it must be true, right? Well what if they
were wrong? What if Pluto wasn’t really a planet at all, but rather a comet? This research
gives credence to the theory that Pluto is a Kuiper Belt object whose trajectory was
altered by Neptune’s massive gravity.
Where did this crazy theory come from and more importantly is it credible?
Well recently, the Hayden Planetarium in New York City helped to give conviction to
this speculation. Instead of displaying Pluto as a planet, they simply lump it together with
a group of icy bodies known as Kuiper Belt objects. To be specific, the Solar System
exhibit is currently set up so that the onlookers see a display of each planet, except Pluto,
which is covered by a metal plaque drilled over the original presentation. The plaque
states, “Beyond the outer planets is the Kuiper Belt of comets, a disk of small icy worlds
including Pluto.” Was the Planetarium justified in undermining Pluto’s status as a planet?
Pluto is clearly a misfit. It cannot be classified as a terrestrial or jovian planet
and does not fall into the well-ordered framework of the solar system. Smaller than the
Earth’s moon, composed of 70-80% of rock, surrounded by layers of frozen water,
methane and nitrogen and having an eccentric orbit tilted 17o from the ecliptic plane,
Pluto has more in common with Kuiper Belt objects. As does its 2:3 orbital resonance
with Neptune which is identical to that of other Kuiper Belt objects which tend to revolve
around the sun twice for every two revolutions Neptune makes.
But astronomers have been aware of these peculiarities for many decades so why
now all of the fuss? In 1992 the first object orbiting the sun beyond Pluto was discovered
(1). Since then hundreds of other bodies have been found and catalogued orbiting the
Sun just beyond Neptune at distances of 40-60 astronomical units. Many astronomers
now believe that Pluto is the largest of a family of chunks of rock and ice. Still, the
majority of professional astronomers is reluctant to reclassify Pluto and defeated a motion
placed before the International Astronomical Union in 1999. This reluctance to
downgrade Pluto’s status, however, may soon change. In 2001 an object approximately
half the size of Pluto was discovered. Named Quaoar this is the largest object found in
1
Presented at the 57th Eastern Colleges Science Conference in Ithaca, NY
20
�the solar system since Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930(2).
Furthermore, recent evidence suggests that some of these Kuiper Belt objects have
satellites similar to Pluto’s moon Charon which interestingly has the exact same
composition as Pluto(3).
II. Governing Equations and Solution Procedure
Is it possible, and moreover is it probable, that a large Kuiper Belt comet could
have strayed too close to Neptune sometime in the past and had its orbit forever changed
to that of Pluto or is this just another theory attempting to explain an oddball planet like
the speculation that Pluto was originally a satellite of Neptune ejected by some
catastrophe? In response we set out to model the scenario and substantiate our theory.
This amounts to using Newton’s Law of Gravitation and Newton’s Second Law of
Motion to determine the change in trajectory that would result if a Kuiper Belt object
came under the influence of Neptune’s strong gravitational pull.
Newton' s 2nd Law of Motion
F = ma
F=
GMm
r2
Newton' s law of Graviation
To do this we must model the Sun, Neptune and Pluto yielding a three body
problem that can be expressed mathematically
&r&1 =
&r&2 =
&r&3 =
Gm2
r2 − r1
3
(r2 − r1 ) +
3
(r1 − r2 ) +
3
(r1 − r3 ) +
Gm1
r1 − r2
Gm1
r1 − r3
Gm3
r3 − r1
3
(r3 − r1 )
3
(r3 − r2 )
3
(r2 − r3 )
Gm3
r3 − r2
Gm2
r2 − r3
Although very intimidating, these equations illustrate that Pluto’s displacement is
determined by its initial velocity, the force of Neptune and the force of the Sun.
Similarly, Neptune’s trajectory is a result of its original momentum and the gravitational
pull of Pluto and the Sun. The above system consists of three coupled non-linear, partial
differential equations. It is difficult to solve and hence readily lends itself to a numerical
21
�solution. As a result the software package Interactive Physics™ was utilized to model the
scenario and the resulting mechanics.
At the start of each simulation the initial positions and velocities are given. The
computer program then computes the acceleration due to gravitational fields present and
determines the location of each body at some later time. The increment in time is kept
small enough so that the acceleration can be assumed constant over each time interval
with no loss of accuracy. As a result, the equations of motion shown below can be
utilized. Through an iterative process entire trajectories are obtained.
r& = r&o + &r&∆t
1
2
r = &r&(∆t ) + r&0 ∆t + r&0
2
III. Results
Many different simulations were run with comets of varying eccentricities and
semi-major axes. Most of the time these comets were ejected out of the solar system or
into greater orbits after contact with Neptune’s immense gravity. A few were slowed
down and were sent into orbits that would have made a collision with another planet or
the sun a near certainty. Two simulations transformed the comet’s path into one similar
to that of Pluto and one of them was extremely accurate.
It began with a comet orbiting the sun (figure 1) with an eccentricity of 0.913
and an aphelion of 63.3 Au (well beyond the orbit of Neptune). The comet came within
200,000 km of Neptune and then had its orbit altered (figure 2) to one almost identical to
that of present day Pluto. As table 1 and figure 3 show the simulation is surprisingly
accurate. It is only in error with regard to the amount of time Pluto spends inside the
orbit of Neptune indicating that Neptune is the farthest planet for 30 out of every 248
years. In actuality Neptune is farther away from the Sun for 20 out of every 248 years as
it was from 1979 to 1999.
IV. Conclusions
When the solar system formed it is likely that many small icy bodies filled the region
between Neptune and the edge of the solar system. As our simulation indicates Kuiper
Belt objects interacting with Neptune’s gravity would most likely be kicked into greater
orbits taking them outside the confines of the solar system or into the inner system and an
™
Interactive Physics is a trademark of MSC Software Corporation
22
�60
orbit of a Kuiper Belt object
the Sun
50
40
Y(AU)
30
20
10
0
-10
-10
0
10
20 30
X (AU)
40
50
60
Figure 1: A typical Kuiper Belt comet
Neptune
Pluto (simulation)
50
40
30
Y(AU)
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-40
-20
0
X (AU)
20
40
Figure 2: Comet after interacting with Neptune’s gravity
23
�Table 1: Pluto’s Orbit
Orbital Data
Simulation
Textbook(4)
Percent Error
Aphelion
49.7 AU
49.3 AU
0.81
Perihelion
28.4 AU
29.7 AU
4.3
Orbital period
243.7 years
248.0 years
1.7
Eccentricity
0.272
0.249
9.2
Not the most distant planet
30 years
20 years
50.0
imminent demise. This would seem to explain the dearth of comets orbiting at 30-50AU.
Interestingly it was, however, confirmed that it is possible under certain circumstances
for the gas giant’s gravity to have altered a comet’s trajectory so that it would revolve
around the sun in a path almost identical to that associated with the planet Pluto.
V. Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Drs. Eva and George Megerle for the generosity and
continuous support that made this research possible.
VI. References
1.
Freeman J. Dyson, “Hidden Worlds: Hunting for Distant Comets and Rogue
Planets,” Sky and Telescope, 87, 26-30 (January 1994).
2.
Tony Reichhardt, “Discovery of giant asteroid gives Pluto a rocky outlook,” Nature
419, 546 (10 Oct 2002).
3.
Ron Cowen, “Nine planets or eight? Probing Pluto’s place in the solar system,”
Science News, 159, 360-361 (June 2001).
4.
Eric Chaisson and Steve McMillan, Astronomy Today, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall,
New Jersey (1999).
24
�Neptune
Pluto (simulation)
Pluto (actual orbit)
50
40
30
Y(AU)
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-40
-20
0
X (AU)
20
40
Figure 3: Comparison between the simulation’s result and Pluto’s actual orbit
25
�Autism and the MMR Vaccination
Stephanie Capasso1 (Nursing)
I. Introduction
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the measles,
mumps, and rubella vaccine (MMR) and the development of autism in children. It
investigated the link between the MMR vaccine and bowel problems and autism as
identified by Dr. Andrew Wakefield in 1998. Since the release of Wakefield’s study
many copycat studies and research has been conducted. The majority of research
conducted since Wakefield’s suggests that there is no link between autism and the MMR
vaccination. The most well known study that opposes Wakefield’s theory was conducted
by Brent Taylor, who concluded that if there were a link between autism and the MMR
vaccination then a greater number of children who had been vaccinated would have
autism. On the other hand, researchers such as Brewitt and Sandler report that there is
reason to believe that Wakefield’s theory is valid. It is necessary to continue researching,
especially on a larger scale to study the evidence of a link between the measles and
autism and the prevalence of autism and its relationship to the MMR vaccination. The
purpose of this study will be to determine if there is a link between autism and the
measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine. The independent variable of this study was the
MMR vaccination and the dependent variable of this study was autism.
II. Research Questions and Hypothesis
1) What is the relationship between the MMR vaccine and the development of autism in
children?
2) Does the MMR vaccine have any relationship to bowel problems in children with
autism?
3) Do the risks of not being vaccinated outweigh the possibility of a link with autism?
Hypothesis- The development of autism in children is unrelated to the MMR vaccine.
III. Review of Related Literature
Taylor, Miller, Lingam, and Andrews (2002) conducted a study to investigate
whether the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccination is associated with bowel
problems and developmental regression in children with autism. The researchers used
1
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Lauren E. O’Hare (Nursing)
26
�Wakefield’s theory of a link between the MMR vaccine and autism. The researchers
looked for evidence of a new form of autism, where developmental regression is reported
to follow shortly after MMR vaccination, typically accompanied by bowel symptoms.
They found no correspondence between behavioral disturbances, including regression,
shortly after MMR vaccination. They did speculate that “It is possible that the onset of
MMR induced “regressive autism” with “autistic enterocolitis” may occur after a
prolonged induction interval and, in addition, requires the presence of cofactors such as
an infection, use of antibiotics, a history of atopy, a family history of autoimmune
disease, or MMR or rubella immunization of mother shortly before or during pregnancy
(p. 393-394).”
This article is relevant to the study because it showed that the proportion of children with
developmental regression or bowel symptoms did not significantly change with the
introduction of the MMR vaccine. No support for an MMR associated “new variant”
form of autism with developmental regression and bowel problems was found.
The Exceptional Parent (2002) published an article that stemmed from
Wakefield’s study on the link between autism and the MMR vaccine. It then went on to
discuss other studies worldwide that opposed Wakefield’s view that there was a link,
such as studies done by the American Academy of Pediatrics and the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention. It then reviewed Taylor’s 1999 study that argued against a link
between autism and the MMR vaccine. Taylor’s most valid points were that the number
of autism diagnosed cases has risen sharply since 1979, but there was no sharp increase
after doctors started using the MMR vaccination and by age two vaccination coverage
among children with autism was the same as vaccination coverage for children the same
age who did not have autism. If the MMR vaccine and autism were linked, then a greater
number of children who had been vaccinated would have autism. Also, the first signs of
autistic behavior or the first diagnosis was no more likely to occur in time periods
following the MMR vaccine than other time periods. The National Institute for Health
(NIH) is funding research to help continue examining the possible link and their largest
project to date studies 100,000 children from birth to age 20 to track their growth and
development and genetic blueprints. Finally, this article provides evidence that there is
no link between the MMR vaccine and autism. However, it does address ongoing studies
to oppose these findings.
Heller, Heller, Pattison, and Heller (2001) discussed a professional’s view of
giving the MMR vaccine. The researcher’s stated that only 45 percent of professionals
completely agree with giving the second MMR dose. The authors then quote Wakefield
and some of his opponents about the link between the vaccine and autism. Finally, the
authors explain the devastating effects of not immunizing children at all and the benefits
outweigh the risks.
27
�In conclusion, the physicians addressed professional views about administering vaccines
that may be controversial to some people. They stated that they were not hesitant to
administer the vaccine because there was not sufficient evidence to support Wakefield’s
hypothesis.
Brewitt (2002) stated that there was a possible relationship between autism and
the MMR vaccination, as Wakefield had suggested. She went on to define autism as a
neuro-biological disorder linked to the measles. She stated the similarities as being: a
strain of the measles virus that is found in 30 percent of autistic children’s gastrointestinal tracts, immune system abnormalities, and areas of the brain affected by autism
and the measles are similar. Finally, the author states that although much research is
needed, “the evidence linking the onset of autism to children receiving the MMR vaccine,
and the measles symptom profile to the autistic symptom profile are too strong to be
ignored (p.70).”
Miller (2001) brought about new evidence that does not support Wakefield’s
theory. This evidence is based on studies conducted since 1999 that counter-act his
theory. Researchers found that the MMR vaccine is highly effective and only rarely
causes serious side effects and by giving the vaccine at separate intervals (as suggested
by physicians) means that children are no longer protected against all three diseases as
early as possible. Additionally, children would need six injections instead of two, and
separate vaccines are not licensed in this country. In conclusion, considerable evidence is
provided to support the use of the MMR vaccine. It provides significant evidence that
supports immunizing because the risks of not immunizing can be life threatening.
Sandler (2002) discussed recent controversies regarding a link between the
MMR vaccine and autism and a new phenotype of autism. “Autistic enterocolitis” is
supported by Sandler because she reported that childhood disintegrative disorder has
become more frequent, the mean age of first concern for autistic children exposed to the
MMR vaccine is closer to the immunization age than children not exposed to the MMR
vaccine, regression is more common in autistic children vaccinated with MMR, the age
of symptom onset clusters around the immunization date of immunized children, and
regressive autism is related with gastrointestinal symptoms. Lastly, Sandler addresses the
possibility that a link exists between the MMR vaccine and autism. She points to the
need for additional research, while pointing out existing statistics that support
Wakefield’s theory.
Kubetin (2001) addressed a study done at Boston University, which included 305
children diagnosed with autism between 1988 and 1999 (the year the MMR vaccine
was first introduced in England). The study found that between 1988 and 1993, the
risk of diagnosed autism increased fourfold. Additionally, they found that MMR
vaccination rates remained constant during that period at 97 percent. Thus, the 572
28
�percent increase in autism cases from 1980 to 1994 far exceeded the modest increase
in MMR coverage. To conclude, the rate of diagnosed autism succeeded the rate of
MMR vaccinations per year by four times. When the rate of autism increased
dramatically between 1980 and 1994, the immunization rates remained stable, thus
this was not the variable that caused the sharp rise in the diagnosis of autism.
Gorman (2002) reported that there is no difference in the autism rates of
children who received the MMR vaccine and those who did not. The article described a
study ongoing in Denmark where researchers are analyzing health records of every child
born from 1991 through 1998. The study revealed that no link existed between autism
and the MMR vaccine. The results were soundly based due to the fact that Denmark’s
medical system has generated the most complete health records of any country.
Investigators were able to document those who were or were not vaccinated and the rate
of autism as it developed. The research found that there was no difference in autism rates
between vaccinated and unvaccinated children in Denmark. There was also no clustering
of autism diagnoses in the weeks and months after vaccination. This was the largest,
most complete study conducted on the subject.
IV. Methods
The target population for this study was children with autism. The criteria for
sample selection was:
(a) Children with autism between two and eight years of age,
(b) Children whose medical records and vaccination records are available since birth,
(c) Patients still living.
Autistic children were randomly selected from two pediatricians’ medical
records. The physicians provided the listings of children in their care with autism who
received the MMR vaccine and those who did not receive the MMR vaccine. After
randomly selecting ten children with autism, the researcher reviewed the children’s
medical records to identify key similarities in events preceding the diagnosis of autism
and the MMR vaccine in relation to their autism. The ex-post facto (or correlational)
research method was utilized as the research design.
After review and approval from two local pediatricians, the study was conducted
to determine if a relationship exists between the MMR vaccination and the development
of autism in children. The researcher randomly selected ten autistic children and
reviewed their immunization records to determine which children received the MMR
vaccination at the appropriate times (fifteen months and a booster at four to five years
old). The following information was used when collecting data:
The information was organized according to two groups:
(1) Children who received the MMR vaccination at fifteen months and
29
�(2) Children who did not receive the MMR vaccination at fifteen months.
The second group was further classified according to whether the children did
not receive the immunization because of parental opposition or because of other reasons
such as immunodeficiency or long-term illness. This information was gathered by
reading the physician’s notes and verbal communication with the physician. Next, the
medical records were reviewed to determine when the child was first diagnosed with
autism and when the symptoms began to be present before the child received the
vaccination.
For the purpose of this study, the following terms will be operationally defined:
Autism is a neuro-biological disorder whereby children do not communicate or
espond in the same manner as the general population. Autistic children have
developmental delays that impair social interactions, verbal and non-verbal
communications, ability to make eye contact, and speech (Brewitt, 2002).
The Wakefield Study is a study that was conducted by Dr. Andrew Wakefield in
England that implicated the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine to autism.
This study was widely published in 1998 and caused frenzy amongst parents, which
lead to a worldwide ban of the MMR vaccine by some parents (Brewitt, 2002).
The Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Vaccine is a suspension of killed viruses,
administered for the prevention of the measles, mumps, and rubella viruses (Brewitt,
2002).
Bowel problems are noted as constipation, constipation and diarrhea, diarrhea, food
allergy, and/or non-specific colitis (Anonymous, 2002).
The following tools will be utilized to collect data:
This study used review of medical charts and physician interviews to investigate
the relationship between exposures to the MMR vaccine in relation to the onset of autism.
This study has strength and weaknesses of the data collected. First, the charts were read
thoroughly and notes were recorded in regards to them. Notes were taken on the child’s
age, vaccination dates or absences, autistic development stage and related syndromes,
available family history, and overall health. A chart review data sheet was created to
organize information concerning child’s age, diagnostic symptoms, vaccination age (if
applicable), and other risk factors for autism. In addition, all notes and questions were
clarified, as to accuracy of charted findings and thoroughness through informal physician
interviews. Although the reviewing of medical charts was based on interpretation by the
researcher, the information read was clarified, through interviews with the physician who
took the notes and had insight into the precision of the notes. Also, there was only one
physician’s note and record for each child, which limited the data to the physician’s
30
�interpretation, observations, questions, and views. The chart review data sheet was
utilized to organize the information found in the medical charts and the physicians’
interview to create a clear picture of the autistic group that was being studied.
V. Results
The statistical testing method used in this study was a chi-square test. A chisquare test was the best method for testing this data because a chi-square test is a
nonparametric procedure used to test hypotheses about the proportion of cases that fall
into various categories. The two independent categories in this study were children with
autism that received the MMR vaccination children with autism that did not receive the
MMR vaccination. The results of the chi-square test indicate that there is a greater
occurrence of autism occurring after vaccination than would have occurred by chance.
The obtained value of 1.600 (x=1.600) is substantially larger than would be expected. If
receiving the MMR vaccination has no correlation with the development of autism in
children, then there should be no significant differences between the results autistic
children that received the MMR vaccine and autistic children that have not received the
MMR vaccine (Polit, Beck, and Hungler, 2001).
The researcher identified ten children with autism between the ages of two and
eight years old. Of the ten children, seven received the MMR vaccination and three did
not. The three children who did not receive the vaccination did not receive it due to
immunodeficiency, parental opposition, and long-term illness (See data review sheet).
Four out of seven of the children who received the MMR vaccination presented definite
symptoms of autism before being vaccinated (See data review sheet). The results showed
a strong possibility that the MMR vaccination is a contributor to autism. In the study,
three children developed autism after receiving the MMR vaccine. Although other
studies conducted state that no relationship exists between the development of autism and
the MMR vaccination, there is need for more complete research. None of the research
done thus far has studied large and varied groups of children. A large-scale study done
on children from birth until adolescence would give accurate numbers about the
relationship between autism and the MMR vaccination and could also give insight to
possible contributors to autism. Until a large size study is conducted to determine the
safeness of the vaccine, parents and physicians will hesitate to vaccinate children and
may be causing more harm to the children by not vaccinating them.
31
�VI. Limitations
Although there are numerous clinical studies that stand behind the theory that
the MMR vaccination does not cause autism in children, there is still evidence that a
possible relationship exists. This study was conducted with a limited sample size in one
demographic region of the United States. Also the study was limited to two physician’s
observations and medical records. Finally, a study this small is limited in resources and
time.
VII. References
(Anonymous, 2002). Autism and the MMR vaccine. The Exceptional Parent, 32, 2, p. 7680.
Brewitt, B. (2002, January). Autism, MMR vaccine, HIV similarities and growth factor
cell signaling. Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, (4), p.70-75.
Gorman, C. (2002, November 14). Do vaccines cause autism? Time Magazine, p. 37.
Heller, T., Heller, D., & Pattison, S. (2001, October 13). Vaccination against mumps,
measles, and rubella: Is there a case for deepening the debate? British Medical
Journal, 323, (7317), p.838-840.
Kubetin, S.K. (2001, September, 1). MMR vaccine is not behind sharp rise in autism
cases. Family Practice News, 31, (17), p.2.
Miller, E. (2001, October). MMR vaccine- worries are not justified. Archives of Disease
in Childhood, 85, (4). Full text article Retrieved November 21, 2002, from the Infotrac
Health Reference Center.
Polit, D., Beck, C.T., and Hungler, B.P. (2001). Essentials of Nursing Research:
Methods, Appraisal, and Utilization. New York, NY: Lippincott. Preboth, M. (2002, May
1). HTAC report on MMR vaccine and autism. American Family Physician, 65, (9), p.
1944.
Ricks, Delthia. (2002, November 7). Study finds no link between autism and
vaccinations. The Staten Island Advance, p. A-6.
Sandler, A.D. (2002, April). Autism and MMR. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral
Pediatrics, 23, (2), p. 122.
Taylor, B., Miller, E., Lingam, R., & Andrews, N. (2002) Measles, mumps, and rubella
vaccination and bowel problems or developmental regression in children with autism:
Population Study. British Medical Journal, 324,(7334), p. 393-396.
32
�Appendix A: Chi-Square Test
FREQUENCIES
VACCINE
Observed N
1
7
2
3
Total
10
Expected N
5
5
Observed N
1
3
2
7
Total
10
Expecter N
5
5
Residual
2
-2
SYMPTOM
Residual
-2
2
TEST STATISTICS
Chi-Square
df
Asymp. Sig.
Vaccine
1.6
1
0.206
Symptom
1.6
1
0.206
33
�34
�Section III: Social Sciences
�The Effects of Conscious Sedation on Anxiety
in Oral Surgery Patients
Dina Gramegna1 (Nursing)
The increasing use of conscious sedation to perform surgical procedures in patients with
anxiety and dental phobia is accredited to the increasing demand to conduct treatment in
a time effective manner without subjecting patients to further anxiety. The purpose of
this research was to examine the effects of conscious sedation on anxiety in oral surgery
patients. This study is based on Fred Quarnstrom’s theory which postulates that the lack
of sedative anesthesia can be attributed to a patient’s apprehension. This study consisted
of twenty selected patients – ten who chose local anesthesia and ten who chose conscious
sedation for oral surgical treatment. The age range in both the experimental and control
groups were the same, twenty-one to thirty-one years of age. The subjects were English
speaking patients with no known medical history. The findings of this study indicated
that patients who selected conscious sedation were less anxious during both pre-operative
and post-operative periods when compared to patients who opted for local anesthesia.
Findings suggest that as anxiety levels decreased, pain management increased during the
post-operative period for consciously sedated patients. Further studies need to examine
the use of conscious sedation on anxious patients without outside influences such as cost.
I. Introduction
The growing use of conscious sedation to perform surgical procedures in
patients with anxiety and dental phobias is attributed to the increasing demand to conduct
treatment in a time efficient manner without subjecting patients to further anxiety. In the
oral surgical field patients who are not sedated are visually, aurally and mentally aware of
the procedures being performed. Conscious or intravenous sedation is used to alleviate
anxiety without exposing the patient to the entire surgical procedure. Conscious,
intravenous sedation has a rapid onset of action, because the patient has an intravenous
access in place throughout the procedure, additional medication can be administered as
needed to keep the analgesic effect. Intravenous medication concentrations can be titrated
to achieve the level of sedation desired. The patient is placed in a relaxed sleep state but
can be aroused when needed to aid the surgeon during the treatment. Patients, awake in
1
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Lauren E. O’Hare (Nursing)
36
�an amnesic state, remember only the insertion of a butterfly needle prior to surgery.
Unlike general anesthesia, patients who are under conscious sedation can be asked to
follow verbal commands and directions while undergoing surgery.
If minimizing a patient’s anxiety through conscious sedation is an acceptable
concept in healthcare, there should be substantial evidence to support this analgesic
method with respect to oral surgery. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to
experimentally determine whether or not conscious sedation reduces anxiety in patients
undergoing oral surgery.
The independent variables were patients awaiting oral surgery and opting for
either conscious sedation or local anesthesia and the dependent variable was anxiety
levels.
Research Question(s) and Hypothesis
This research study answers the following research questions:
1. Does conscious sedation reduce anxiety levels?
2. Does the concept of being sedated create anxiety in patients awaiting oral surgery?
3. Is anxiety related to pain management?
It was hypothesized that the effects of conscious sedation aids in pain
management and reduces anxiety in patients awaiting oral surgery.
Review of Literature
A common problem that oral and maxillofacial surgeons face is a patient’s fear
and anxiety regarding the pain and discomfort associated with their treatment
(Desjardins, 2000). Management of the anxious patient is a major concern in oral health
care because behavior can range from cooperative to unmanageable. Unmanageable
behavior can present a hazard to the patient or hinder the procedure performance. Dental
professionals are trained in sedative techniques that can alleviate patient anxiety and/or
control disruptive behaviors in the course of dental treatment (Dougherty, Romer &
Perlman, 2002).
The management of pain and anxiety is a major challenge for oral and
maxillofacial surgeons. Zunuga (2000) found in oral surgery that control of patient
anxiety assumes a significant role in overall patient management. He states the less
anxious a patient is, the more easily and efficiently treatment can be performed. In a
study conducted by Quarnstrom (1997) it was found that one can achieve better pain
control through relaxation. His theory states that the lack of sedative anesthesia can be
attributed to a patient’s apprehension.
Pain and anxiety control involve the application of various physical, chemical
and psychological modalities aimed at preventing and treating pre-operative, intra37
�operative and post-operative patient anxiety and pain (Zuniga, 2000). Conscious,
intravenous sedation is an important factor to manage a patient’s pain and anxiety
(Berkowitz, 1997). The goal of conscious sedation is to minimize anxiety, while making
that patient comfortable and cooperative. Conscious, intravenous sedation minimally
depresses consciousness while managing anxiety and pain. The ability to sedate and relax
patients intra-operatively will allow procedures to be more comfortable and will cause a
reduction in fear and anxiety.
Once patients are relaxed through sedation, adequate pain control is almost
always possible. Minimizing anxiety will dramatically increase the quality of care
received by patients undergoing surgery.
The theoretical framework for this study is Quarnstrom’s concept that conscious
sedation will reduce anxiety in patients undergoing oral surgical treatment.
II. Methods
Subjects were included in this study based on their decision to undergo an oral
surgical procedure by either being consciously sedated and locally anesthetized, or by
having surgery performed using only a local anesthetic. The patients opting for conscious
sedation with a local anesthetic were classified into the experimental group while the
patients receiving only a local anesthetic were classified into the control group.
A sample size of twenty patients was used, ten in the experimental group and ten
in the control group. Five in each group were males and the remaining five from each
group were females. Subjects were within a ten year age range, between the ages of
twenty-one and thirty-one. The patients selected did not have a past or present medical
illness, were not taking any form of medication nor have any known allergies.
The study was conducted in an oral surgery practice in a suburban setting in
New York City. All participants involved in the study were English speaking new
patients, having no prior knowledge of the institution or of conscious sedation.
The medications used in conscious sedation were a combination of midazolam
(Versed), diazepam (Valium), methohexital (Brevital), fentanyl, glycopyrrolate
(Robinul), atropine, and dexamethasone along with the medications used to establish
local anesthesia –either carbocaine or lidocaine.
The research design for this study was a cross-sectional design, involving the
collection of data at two stages in time, pre-operative and post-operative. Pre-operative
and post-operative data was collected in a structured questionnaire format. Patients
received a pre-operative and post-operative questionnaire each containing ten statements
to evaluate anxiety on a five-item Likert scale as follows:
5 = Strongly agree
38
�4 = Agree
3 = No Opinion
2 = Disagree
1 = Strongly Disagree.
Pre-operative questionnaire statements:
1. I do not have a fear of needles, both intra-oral and intra-venous.
2. I am not afraid of visualizing my procedure.
3. I am not fearful of dental treatment or oral surgery.
4. I am comfortable with being able to hear the procedure.
5. I do not have a fear of being sedated.
6. I am not concerned with the after effects of the surgery.
7. I have not given much thought to coming in for surgery.
8. I am not concerned with being uncomfortable during surgery.
9. I feel the same now as I did prior to walking into the office.
10. I feel the same now as I did before taking this questionnaire.
Post-operative statements:
1. I did not experience any pain or discomfort during surgery.
2. I did not experience any pain or discomfort after surgery.
3. I am not as apprehensive as I was before the procedure.
4. I no longer have anxiety toward dental treatment or oral surgery.
5. I should have been less anxious prior to surgery.
6. There were other factors, aside from anxiety, that influenced me to choose
either conscious sedation or local anesthesia.
7. If I were in need of oral surgery in the future, I would definitely feel less
anxiety.
8. It is the increased knowledge prior to surgery, given to me by the oral
surgeon, which decreased my anxiety.
9. My anxiety has been reduced due to my own method (local anesthesia or
conscious sedation) of surgery.
10. If I were to have oral surgery again I would choose the same approach.
The experimental group was given an addressed stamped envelope and asked to
mail in their questionnaires after a twenty-four hour recovery period so that the effects of
the medication used in conscious sedation did not interfere with their answers.
After a review of initial medical history, the participants involved were asked if
they were willing to participate in the study. Each participant signed a consent form to
39
�allow the research findings to be released. The participants were made aware that this
study was for the purpose of a nursing research class at Wagner College.
Each participant received a number from one to twenty. The questionnaires were
also numbered one through twenty, allowing only the researcher to know which
questionnaire corresponds to which participant. The pre-operative questionnaires were
given to the patient after a review of the initial medical history, showing no past or
present illness, no use of medications and no allergies. The purpose of the study was then
explained to the patient. The patients were then asked how they will undergo surgical
treatment. If they were to be sedated, they were placed in the experimental group and if
they selected only local anesthesia they were placed in the control group. Those in the
control group were asked to fill out both their pre and post operative questionnaires
before leaving the institution. Those in the experimental group were asked to fill out the
pre-operative questionnaire prior to surgery and mail in their post-operative
questionnaire.
Once the questionnaires were returned, the scores from the questionnaires were
summed. The scores of the control group were then tabulated and compared with those of
the experimental group. The operational definition of variables showed low pre-operative
scores reflecting severely anxious patients while high scores reflected patients who were
less anxious just prior to surgery.
The post-operative questionnaire determined whether or not the participants
were more anxious of being sedated or if conscious sedation played an active part in the
reduction of anxiety.
III. Results
The summed scores from the Likert scale questionnaires administered pre and
post-operatively are reflected below. The numerical data received from the questionnaires
was evaluated to formulate a relationship between anxiety and those who received
conscious sedation with a local anesthetic and those who received only a local anesthetic.
A parametric paired t-test was used to determine the relationship between the
experimental and control groups (during both pre-operative and post-operative periods)
and the dependent variable, anxiety [See Tables 1 and 2].
Table 1: Paired Samples Statistics for the Control Group and Experimental Group
During Pre-Operative and Post-Operative Periods
Anxiety in:
Mean
Standard Deviation
Standard Error Mean
Control Group
2.0300
.05657
.04000
Experimental Group
3.0600
.36770
.26000
40
�Table 2: Paired Samples T-Test for Control and Experimental Groups
During Pre-Operative and Post-Operative Periods
Overall
Anxiety
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
of Mean
t
Significance
ρ
ControlExperimental
1.0300
.31113
.02200
2.682
.0134
‹.05
The findings revealed that conscious sedation reduced anxiety levels during both
pre-operative and post-operative periods in the experimental group. As anxiety levels
decreased during the pre-operative period, there was a significant increase in pain
management during the intra-operative and post-operative periods for the experimental
group.
Mean scores and standard deviation were calculated for pre-operative and postoperative patients. The scores represent the mean levels of anxiety between both the
control and experimental groups. The lower the mean score the higher the anxiety level.
The reverse is also true, the higher the mean score the lower the anxiety level. [See Table
3]
Anxiety
Control Group
Experimental
Group
Table 3: Group Mean for Levels of Anxiety
Pre-operative
Post-operative
Pre-operative
Mean Values
Standard
Standard
Deviation
Deviation
0.946
0.058
1.99
0.967
1.688
2.80
Post-operative
Mean Value
2.07
3.32
Although both groups were anxious prior to surgery, the control group (nonsedated patients) showed an increased level of anxiety over the experimental group
(sedated patients). During the post-operative periods the experimental group
demonstrated a lower level of anxiety over the control group.
IV. Discussion
According to the results of this study, there were no violations to hypothesis
assumptions. It was found that conscious sedation decreased anxiety levels during preoperative and post-operative periods for the experimental group. The concept of being
sedated did not create an increase in anxiety in the experimental group. A reduction in
41
�anxiety increases pain management during the post-operative period for the experimental
group.
There were several limitations to this study, one being response set biases.
Participants may choose an extreme response – such as strongly agree or strongly
disagree – regardless of the amount of anxiety they are experiencing. To try and limit
these biased responses the participants were kept in a nonjudgmental atmosphere, asked
to answer the questions as honestly as possible, and were reassured that the responses
supplied will be kept confidential.
Another limitation was the cost of sedation. Many patients cannot afford to be
consciously sedated. Insurance companies view oral surgery as an ambulatory procedure
and do not deem sedation necessary. Many medical insurance companies do not
reimburse patients for conscious sedation. This imposed a limitation on the patient’s free
will to choose sedation as a method to reduce anxiety. Future studies should be conducted
where the cost of conscious sedation will not play a factor in the patient’s method of
choice.
V. References
Berkowitz, C., (1997). Conscious sedation: a primer. American Journal of Nursing,60(4),
(32).
Desjardins, P., (2000). Patient pain and anxiety: The medical and psychologic challenges
facing oral and maxillofacial surgery. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 58(10),
part 2.
Dougherty, N., Romer, M., & Perlman, S. (2002). The use of sedation for the dental
patient with special needs. Journal of Dental Medicine, 32(4), (113-114).
Quarnstrom, F., (1997). Sedation of phobic dental patients with an emphasis on the use of
oral triazolam. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 22(7), (451).
Zuniga, J., (2002) Guidelines for anxiety control and pain management in oral and
maxillofacial surgery. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 58(10), (29).
42
�Redefining Love: The Interrelations Between
Love, Attachment Styles and the Triangular
Theory of Romantic Relationships
Jaime T. Carreno1 (Psychology)
Three popular theories of love were brought together, in an attempt to better understand
this baffling concept. The interrelations between triangular love type, love styles, and
adult attachment styles were of primary interest. One hundred college students were
surveyed. Relationships were found within love styles and within triangular love theory
components. Relationships were also found between love styles and the triangular theory
and between age and levels of commitment in relationships. Lastly a relationship was
found between attachment styles and triangular love type. The interrelations of these
three major love theories suggests an underlining essence of love. This research is a step
toward a more encompassing definition of love, which should take into account the way a
person loves (love style), the way a person feels about receiving love (attachment style),
and finally how a person comes to experience love (triangular love type) in a
relationship.
I. Introduction
Love is like time. Everyone knows what it is until one is asked to define it.
Researchers, who pride themselves in the creation of operational definitions of abstract
concepts, have made a number of attempts at defining love. Although a number of latent
and operational definitions have been presented, little has been done in having a universal
definition stemming from a fusing of major love theories. Moreover attempts to use love
as defined by the major love theories have many times overlooked the original concepts
proposed by their creators. This research attempts to analyze the concepts of love styles,
attachment styles, and triangular love type, while taking into account the theories set
forth by the originators.
Love styles are an individual’s personal theories of love. These theories are
related to the ways in which individuals tend to behave in romantic relationships
(Hendrick & Hendrick, 1986). These individual theories, originated from a proposed
typology of love by Lee (1973), who identified three primary types of love styles: Eros,
1
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Amy Eshleman (Psychology)
43
�Ludus and Storge. Eros lovers become involved very quickly, they are seen as romantic
and passionate. Ludus lovers are known as “game-players” who at times date more than
one person. Storge lovers seek similarity between themselves and their partners, they
often date friends. Lee then identified three secondary love styles: Pragma, Mania and
Agape. Secondary love styles are composed of two primary styles yet are qualitatively
different from their two derivatives. Each love style is distinctive. Pragmatic lovers (a
compound of Storge and Ludus) know what they want in a relationship and have a
“checklist” of conditions that must be met. Manic lovers (a compound of Eros and
Ludus) obsess over their partners; they experience extreme highs and lows in their
relationships, and are seen as possessive and dependent. Finally, Agapic lovers (a
compound of Eros and Storge) do not think of themselves, instead they focus on their
partners and what they can do for their partners (Hendrick & Hendrick, 1986). By
definition a person’s love style can only be one from this list of possible love styles,
therefore it is a nominal level variable.
The second equally influential theory of love has its origins in a three volume
collection by Bowlby (1969, 1973 & 1980), in which Bowlby sought to explain the
attachment ties humans have to their caregivers. Bowlby’s attachment theory grew out of
observations of infants and their primary caregivers. Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, and
Wall (1978) took Bowlby’s general theory and condensed it into three styles of types of
attachment—secure, anxious/ambivalent, and avoidant. Hazan and Shaver (1987)
applied Ainsworth et al.’s classifications to adult romantic relationships. Hazan and
Shaver formed a three-item questionnaire to measure adult attachment styles, assigning
one item for each attachment style. Each item was worded in such a way to apply the
original concept of infant attachment styles to adult romantic relationships. Campos,
Barrett, Lamb, Goldsmith, and Sternberg (1983) obtained the percentages corresponding
to each attachment style in infants. Sixty-two percent of infants have secure attachment
styles, 15% of infants have anxious/ambivalent attachment styles, and 23% of infants
have avoidant attachment styles. Using these percentages as a baseline, Hazan and
Shaver (1987) observed similar percentages in their measure of adult attachment styles.
Adults who categorize themselves as secure composed 56% of the sample, 19% of adults
classified themselves as anxious/ambivalent and 25% considered themselves avoidant.
Secure attachment style is characterized by trust, lack of concern with being abandoned,
and the view that one is worthy and well liked. Avoidant attachment style is
characterized by a suppression of attachment needs, due to past refusals of attachment
needs. Finally, anxious/ambivalent attachment is characterized by a concern that others
will not reciprocate the individual’s desire for intimacy.
The third theory examined was a highly influential theory by Sternberg (1986),
who proposed that love was a collection of three components, intimacy, passion, and
44
�commitment, which together form to make a triangle (See Figure 1). Each of these three
components can vary in presence and intensity. Differing combinations of the three
components of love create a different type of love. Intimacy alone produces a liking
relationship. A friendship in which one feels closeness, bondedness and warmth, with the
absence of sexual attraction or a decision to share one’s life with the target person.
Passion alone produces a relationship of infatuation. Infatuations tend to be
instantaneous and are popularly referred to as “love at first sight”. They tend to be
characterized by psycho-physiological arousal, such as increased heart rate, increased
hormonal secretion, and swelling of the genitals. Commitment alone produces an empty
love. Empty love can be the result of a long term relationship in which two people have
made the decision to stay together even though there is no mutual emotional involvement
and the physical attraction has ended. Empty love can also be present at the beginning of
a relationship, such as in an arranged marriage. Romantic love is composed of intimacy
and passion. Romantic love is basically a close friendship with physical attraction. We
can see examples of romantic love in a story such as Romeo and Juliet where there is not
only a sexual attraction but also an emotional bond. Compassionate love consists of
intimacy and commitment. Compassionate love is essentially a long-term friendship.
This can happen in marriages in which physical attraction is absent. Fatuous love
consists of passion and commitment. This is a love that exists through a commitment
made because of passion. An example of this type of love is seen in Hollywood
marriages in which a couple meets and marries in a short span of time—although the
commitment and passion are present, the couple lacks sufficient time in acquiring an
emotional bond. Consummate love is a love consisting of all three of the components of
love. It is a love that is most withstanding and is what most couples strive to be. Nonlove is the absence of all three components of the love triangle. Aron and Westbay
(1996) distilled passion, intimacy, and commitment to a list of major features of each.
Features of passion included gazing at each other, euphoria, sexual appeal, physical
attraction, excitement, touching, laughing, and warm feelings. Features of intimacy
included openness, honesty, support, understanding, patience, caring, and trust. Lastly
features of commitment included devotion, protectiveness, loyalty, sacrifice, and longing
for each other when separated. Here again we can see that by definition a person can not
hold more than one position on the love triangle.
In recent years a small number of researchers have attempted to synthesize these
theories, usually by ignoring the “labeling” nature of the theories. Fricker and Moore
(2002) for example, attempted to correlate Hazan and Shaver’s (1987) attachment styles
with Hendrick and Hendrick’s (1986) love styles. It was found that secure attachment
styles were positively correlated with Eros love style (r=0.27; p=0.01) and anxious
/ambivalent (0.01).
45
�It is not difficult to see why some tend to classify both love styles and triangular
love type as a ratio of level variables, since operational definitions of both theories are
usually in the form of scales. However, upon inspecting the original theories (Lee, 1973,
Hendrick & Hendrick, 1986, and Sternberg, 1986, respectively) it is obvious that both
love styles and triangular love type are nominal variables. Therefore although level of
each type of love style or levels of the three components of the triangular theory of love
can be examined, by definition a participant can only be one love style or have one type
of love from the triangular theory, which consists of the three separate components.
Attachment styles do not usually experience the same misunderstanding since it seems to
be understood that the differing attachment styles are also nominal. This may be a result
of the Hendrick and Hendrick (1986) publishing a nominal form in which to measure the
variable.
The present study seeks to identify the relationships between the aforementioned
three major theories on love. We will examine the variables of love styles and triangular
love type in the manner most consistent with the original theory. The hypothesized
relationships are as follows:
I.
There is a relationship between attachment styles and love style. More
specifically the expected relationships are as follows: Participants who have a
secure attachment style are also likely to have Storge, Pragma, and Eros love
style. Participants who have an avoidant attachment style are also likely to have
Ludus love style. Participants who have an anxious/ambivalent attachment style
are also likely to have Agapic and Manic love style.
II. There is a relationship between love styles and type of triangular love. More
specifically the expected relationships are as follows: Participants who have a
Storge love style are also likely to have liking, consummate or companionate
triangular love type. Participants who have a Pragma love style are also likely to
have consummate triangular love type. Participants who have an Eros love style
are also likely to have romantic triangular love type. Participants who have a
Ludus love style are also likely to have non-love triangular love type.
Participants who have an Agapic love style are also likely to have an empty
triangular love type. Participants who have a mania love style are also likely to
have infatuation or fatuous triangular love type.
III. There is a relationship between attachment styles and triangular love type. More
specifically the expected relationships are as follows: Participants who have a
secure attachment style are likely to have a triangular love type of liking,
consummate, companionate and romantic. Participants who have an avoidant
46
�attachment style are likely to have non-love triangular love type. Participants
who are anxious/ambivalently attached are likely to have a triangular love type of
empty, infatuation, or fatuous.
II. Method
Participants
The random sample of resident students at a small private liberal arts college
was surveyed. From the original 1,286 questionnaires distributed to a random sample of
resident students, 100 were completed and returned to the designated drop-off sites
located on the campus.
Seventy-seven percent of the sample consisted of females. Thirty-six percent of
the sample consisted of freshmen, 20% sophomores, 26% juniors, 17% seniors, and 1%
graduate students. Ninety-two percent of the sample identified themselves as White, 3%
of the sample identified themselves as Black, 1% of the sample identified themselves as
Hispanic, 1% of the sample identified themselves as “other”. Eleven percent of the
sample classified their religion as “other”. The ages of the sample ranged from 17-21,
with the mean age of 19.12.
Materials
A questionnaire was constructed to gather the data of interest. The
questionnaire began with seven demographic and background questions, addressing
gender, school class status, race, religion, age, number of times in love, and whether or
not the participant was in love at the time he/she completed the questionnaire. In order to
determine each participant’s love style, Hendrick and Hendrick’s (1986) series of six love
styles scales were included, one for each love style. Each scale had seven items, rated on
a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Attachment styles were established
by asking each participant to circle the one item in Hazan Shaver’s (1987) three-item
attachment scale which best described them. A final scale was used to determine the
extent of each component of the triangular theory of love. The scale consisted of three
sub-scales, one for each component of the theory (intimacy, passion, and commitment),
which were adapted from Lemieux and Hale (1999). The intimacy and passion subscales each consisted of seven items, and the commitment sub-scale consisted of six
items. All three sub-scales were measured on a ten-point agreement scale, where
1=strongly disagree and 10=strongly agree. Three items were reversely-scored. Finally
participants were asked to identify which relationship was used in reference to the items
47
�on the questionnaire (present relationship, past relationship or a relationship they would
like to have in the future).
Procedure
A questionnaire package was placed in randomly selected residential student
mailboxes at Wagner College. In addition to the actual questionnaire each package
contained a numbered return envelope and a ticket numbered the same as the envelope.
Every participant was informed of the $50 raffle which would take place with the
returned envelopes. Those students who wished to participate placed their envelopes in
one of the designated drop-off locations around the campus.
The survey instructions informed participants that the study was designed to
examine the romantic relationships of college students. They were assured of
confidentiality and anonymity. Participation was completely voluntary. The participants
were provided with contact information if they wished to ask questions or learn the
results of the completed project.
III. Results
In order to analyze the three theories of love in the fashion most consistent with
the original theory, each participant had to be ascribed to one attachment style, one love
style and love triangular type. Attachment style for each participant was established by
the one item circled in Hazan and Shaver’s (1987) three-item attachment scale. Love
style was established by the highest score in each of the six love style scales developed
by Hendrick and Hendrick (1986). Ascribing each participant the love style that best
corresponds to the participant’s theories about love and behavior in relationships. Two
were eliminated from the love analysis. Both had two scales with the same high score.
In order to classify each participant into a love style a simple equation was
created, the J-Formula. The J-Formula is used to collapse a scale which measures
multiple components of a theory into present or not present for each component. In order
to establish the triangular love type of each participant, the J-Formula was used to
determine the presence of intimacy, passion and commitment. The J-Formula is as
follows:
(Highest level on subscale –Mdn level on subscale) x Nitems on subscale=J
If J≥ the Participant’s score, then that component is said to be present.
The J-Formula takes into consideration the average level of each component of the love
triangle (the median point of the scales), as well as the highest possible level (the highest point
in the scales) and determines the average between these two points. If one consistently
responds to each item in the scale above this level, then one can be said to have more than the
average level of this component of the love triangle (the component is present).
48
�Three hypotheses were tested and the following results obtained:
I.
Hypothesis 1: Using a Chi-Squared test no relationship was found between
participant’s attachment style and love style.
II. Hypothesis 2: Using a Chi-Squared test no relationship was found between
participant’s love style and triangular love type.
III. Hypothesis 3: Using a Chi-Squared test relationships were found between
attachment styles and triangular love type (p<0.01). The number of participants
who were securely attached and who had romantic love and consummate love
exceeded the number expected by chance, 21 to 19 and 21 to 15.1 respectively.
The number of participants who were avoidantly attached and who had non-love
exceeded the number that would occur by chance by almost three times (8 to
3.2). Finally, participants who were anxiously/ambivalently attached who also
had an infatuated triangular love type exceeded the number that would occur by
chance (3 to 2.2).
IV. Discussion
When the three theories were collapsed into the fashion most consistent with
their original theories, a relationship between attachment style and type of love was
found. Participants who were securely attached were more likely to also be in a romantic
or consummate relationship. Participants who were avoidantly attached were likely to
have non love. Finally, participants who were anxiously/ambivalently attached were
likely to have infatuated love. These relationships seems consistent with the theoretical
relationships between the variables, however, there seems to be a piece missing, namely
love styles. If we recall the original definitions, we have an attachment style that
primarily parallels our attachment style to our primary caregiver (mostly one’s mother),
However before we can have consummate love, or non love, we must develop theories
about love and develop a series of behaviors that occur when one is in a relationship. By
definition love theories and action in a relationship are love styles. When looking at the
theoretical relationships in Figure 2, the relationships between attachment style and love
type is expected but missing the center link (love style).
The question most should be asking is “why don’t researchers use the concept in
their original form and opt for using the concepts as ratio level variables?” This study
found 17 correlations within and between the three love theories examined. Yet when the
variables were examined according to their original concepts (i.e., nominal variables),
only one interrelationship was found.
What does this lack of relationship between the major original concepts of love
mean? It means that there is a lack of unity between the definitions of love and
49
�relationships. This study sought to unify the theories by providing a new clearer
definition of love, there also giving a sort of formula for a successful relationship (i.e.,
one in which love exists between the two individuals). The task turned out to be more
difficult than originally thought however this is not to say that the task should be
abandoned. This is also not to say that the major love theories are not related and should
be disregarded, quite the opposite. Actually it seems that although currently there are no
appropriate ways to quantify love styles, or the triangular theory of love, there is a
theoretical relationship between both of these theories and attachment styles, which will
one day be able to be supported. The more encompassing definition of love will in the
future look much like what follows. A person develops an attachment style presumably
during childhood development, as one becomes older beliefs and theories about love or
love style begin to develop, this yields a certain type of relationship (love triangle). In
this fashion these three love theories are interrelated and when the theories are quantified
in a more efficient fashion perhaps this will provide insight to social psychologists, and
relationship councilors. It could finally help us to understand how and why people love
each other and why some relationships work while others fail.
V. References
Aron, S. and Westbay, L. (1996). Dimensions of the prototype of love. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 535-551.
Feeney, J. and Noller, P. (1990). Attachment style as a predictor of adult romantic
relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 281-291.
Fricker, J. and Moore, S. (2002). Relationship satisfaction: The role of love styles and
attachment styles. Current Research in Social Psychology, 7, 182-204.
Hassebrauck, M. and Buhl, T. (1996). Three-dimensional love. Journal of Social
Psychology, 136,121-122.
Hazan, C. and Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment
process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524.
Hendrick, C. and Hendrick, S. (1986). A theory and method of love. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 392-402.
Hendrick, S. S., Hendrick, C. and Adler, N. L. (1988). Romantic relationships: love
separation, and staying together. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 980988.
50
�Lemieux, R. and Hale, J.L. (1999). Intimacy, passion, and commitment in young
romantic relationships: Successfully measuring the triangular theory of love.
Psychological Reports, 85, 497-503.
McCutcheon, L.E. (2002). Are parasocial relationship styles reflected in love styles?
Current Research in Social Psychology, 7, 82-93.
Sternberg, R. J. (1986). A triangular theory of love. Psychological Review, 93, 119-135.
INTIMACY
Liking
Romantic
Companionate
Consummate
PASSION
Infatuated
Fatuous
Figure 1: The love triangle
51
COMMITMENT
Empty
�Storge
Secure
Liking
Consumate
Pragma
Companionate
Eros
Romantic
Avoidant
Non Love
Ludus
Empty
Anxious/
Ambivalent
Agapic
Infatuation
Mania
Fatuous
Figure 2: Theoretical relationships between attachment style, love style and triangular
love type
52
�Memory: Effects of One’s Gender on Memory Retention
Nicole Gaeta1 (Psychology)
Due to increased interest and previous studies on the effects of gender roles on cognitive
abilities, a study was conducted to determine whether or not these effects played a
significant role in memory differences within genders. Forty-one Wagner College
psychology students, who were asked to participate in the study, were randomly given
one of 2 different stories, one of which appealed to male prototypical interests, and one to
female prototypical interests. The students were then asked to immediately rewrite the
story that they were given, verbatim, to the best of their ability. Each essay recalled by
the students was given 3 separate scores, one for overall level of accuracy, one for
number of words recalled, and one for number of major details each person remembered.
These scores were then calculated to determine 3 overall means for the males in each of
these categories and 3 means in each area for the females. After comparing the means,
there were not many differences in the means of all 3 categories. There were, however,
substantial differences between the numbers of details remembered by females for the
female story versus the male story. There was also an evident difference between
numbers of words recalled by females in general as opposed to males.
I. Introduction
Many people wonder why they often forget certain things so easily and quickly.
Even more disconcerting is why they can remember every detail about one thing and not
even one detail about something else. The process of forgetting can be defined by two
basic theories: interference, when some other information gets in the way of one’s
present thinking, causing one to forget something, and decay, which explains how the
passage of time may cause one to forget something simply because it has slipped away
from the memory trace. Memories that are not completely lost, however, are often not
truthful due to another phenomenon known as memory distortion. This idea has
fascinated many people through its explanation of how one’s mind can actually distort a
memory and make that person believe that something truly happened the way he/she
remembers it. One psychologist, Schacter, described the basic memory distortions as the
“seven sins of memory” (Sternberg 2003). His “seven sins” included transience, the
rapid fading process of memory, absent-mindedness, forgetting what one had just done or
1
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Richard Brower (Psychology)
53
�was about to do, blocking, when one knows something but is having trouble retrieving it,
misattribution, forgetting where one heard or learned certain information, suggestibility,
when one thinks they remember something because someone mentions to them that they
had, bias, having a prior idea of what one should be feeling based on past experiences,
and persistence, where one remembers one thing that sticks out because it differed from a
line of many other things (Sternberg 2003).
Though there is hardly any argument that these causes of memory loss exist, one
might wonder why different ones occur at different times, to different people, about
different things. It may be questionable whether or not one’s gender would play a role in
how much or how little, or even what type of information one remembers. Some may
think that males are more likely to retain information that applies to prototypical male
interests, like sports or tools, for example, whereas females would be more likely to
remember things that are related to shopping or relationships. Previous research studies
have been conducted by psychologists, including Maccoby and Jacklin, Hyde and Lynn,
and Herlitz, Nilsson, & Backman, to determine whether or not sex differences affect
cognitive abilities. While their ideas have been challenged by Hyde and Lynn, Maccoby
and Jacklin believed, “women are superior to men in verbal ability, while men surpass
women in spatial and mathematical ability” (Iodescu 2002). Herlitz, Nilsson, &
Backman’s recent study also concluded that women outperformed men on verbal tests,
and specifically noted that women also consistently outperformed men on tasks involving
episodic memory” (Iodescu 2002). Other studies, particularly that of Cross and Madson
(1997), have supported the idea that male cognition differs from that of females, in
respect to the different interests between the genders. Cross and Madson supported
evidence that women focused more on information related to relationships, whereas men
were more familiar with information related to social dominance (Gabriel & Gardner
1999).
With this growing interest between gender and cognitive abilities, the study
described below was conducted to determine if a viable relationship actually does exist
between memory retention and one’s sex, based on cognitive differences between males
and females. Using Frederic Bartlett’s model for memory testing as a starting point,
which studied the effects of culture based understandings on memory for particular
material, 2 short fictional stories were created by the author to assess memory retention
among genders (Sternberg 2003). Relative to the study discussed below, Bartlett
believed that previously existing schemas or relevant knowledge affect a person’s recall
of presently learned information (Sternberg 2003). With this in mind, this study was
conducted to determine whether or not different gender interests affect one’s relevant
knowledge, and, in turn, affect one’s memory.
54
�II. Method
Participants and Design
The participants of this study included 41 students, 15 males and 26 females, in
the author’s psychology classes. All participants were Wagner College students between
the ages of 18 and 21. This was a correlational study seeking to determine whether or not
there was a relationship between one’s gender and how much of particular details one
obtains. Students randomly received one of two stories, one that pertained to prototypical
female interests and one to prototypical male interests.
Procedure
During class, students received one of the 2 stories as seen in Appendix 1 and 2,
at random, so that some of them received the story that pertained to their gender, and
some received the one that pertained to the opposite sex. To be sure that they paid close
attention to what they were reading, all students were primed for the study by being told
beforehand that they would be asked to rewrite the paragraph as soon as they were
finished reading it. After all the students finished reading their designated story, which is
described in detail below, they were handed out a piece of paper, and asked to rewrite the
story verbatim to the best of their ability, as seen in Appendix 3. Essays were then
analyzed to see if any differences existed between males and females in the number of
words, names, numbers, facts, or any other details that they remembered. The essays
were then studied within each gender to determine whether or not there was a significant
difference between the students’ memory retention of their prototypical female story
versus the male story.
Each short story was created by the author to assess separate male and female
interests. The stories, each containing an average of 425 words, contained a sufficient
number of details. The female oriented story, Paragraph A, described a situation between
2 high school female friends who were preparing for their senior prom. It described, in
detail, their task of prom dress shopping and included such information as follows: the
names of the 2 girls, the names of their dates, the stores in which they shopped, the prices
of the clothing, the styles of particular dresses, the present day and time, the date of the
prom, the name of their high school, and the outcome of their adventure. The maledirected story, Paragraph B, described 2 male friends who were engaged in a video game
competition and the bet that they made on one specific occasion. This story included the
following details: the boys’ names, their roommates’ names, the monetary value of the
bet, where the competition took place, the name of the football video game, the teams
that they chose, the players in the games, the scores of the game, and specific plays that
occurred during the game. Each story contained 23 major details.
55
�Each essay written by the students was given a number score in 3 main
categories: number of words, level of accuracy, and number of important details. The
score for number of words remembered was rated in a ratio out of total number of words,
425, and a mean score was calculated for each group. The means obtained by females
versus males were then compared to see if any differences existed as a result of either the
students’ genders or which story they received. A standard score out of a possible 10 was
given to each student for his/her level of accuracy. This score was graded based on the
student’s sentence structure, formatting of the story, and accuracy of the details he/she
remembered. For the last comparison, students were given 1 point for each major detail
that they remembered from the 2 stories, out of a possible 23 details in each story. These
numbers were then also compared to see if any significant differences existed here as
well.
III. Results
Table 1 indicates that males did not display any substantial differences in
accuracy scores or major details remembered between the female story, Paragraph A, and
the male story, Paragraph B. The only evident difference between the males’ memories
of the 2 stories lies within the mean scores for number of words remembered. Males
tended to recall an average of 144.80 words for the male-directed story, and only 114.20
for the female-oriented story. Though the number of words remembered by females from
the female story, with a mean of 196.94, was substantially higher than the mean number
retained from the male story, 145.3, even their lowest number of words was slightly
higher than that of the highest score for the males. Females also showed a slight
difference between accuracy scores from the female story, 8.38, and the male story, 6.30.
The most substantial difference within the scores lies within the females’ recollection of
major details from the female story as opposed to the male story. For the story that was
directed towards their own interests, females remembered an average of 15.38 out of a
possible 23 details, and only 7.70 of the major details in the male story.
IV. Discussion
Though the students received higher mean scores for the story relating to their
own gender, it was surprising to see that the males did not show any real substantial
differences in accuracy or major details remembered for the male story as opposed to the
female story. In general, the average total scores were lower for the males than the
females. It was interesting to see how much more the females wrote about a story that
they felt more comfortable with. In reading the essays, it seemed that the females
56
�Table 1: Mean Scores for Students’ Recollection
Story A= female story
CATEGORY
Story B= male story
MALES
Story A
Story B
N=5
N=10
FEMALES
Story A
Story B
N=16
N=10
# of Words/425
114.20
144.80
196.94
145.30
Accuracy Score/10
7.40
7.80
8.38
6.30
Major Details/23
10.80
11.10
15.38
7.70
rewrote the female story much more accurately, including the structure of the story itself.
They tended to rewrite the story as if they were telling someone what happened. When
the females had to rewrite the male story, it seemed that they were less accurate and
attempted to fabricate some of the story to make it more interesting. Since females are
stereotypically more talkative than males, it was also interesting to see that females wrote
more of both stories, regardless of which one they had, than the males did. Even more
interestingly, in reading the essays, it stood out that almost all of the females remembered
the description of the dress that the girl in their story chose, and the males very often
remembered the play that turned the game around in their story.
To determine a true level of differences between male and female memory
retention, further studies may have all students read and rewrite both stories to factor out
any other possibilities that may have affected how much or how little the students
remembered. Some students may simply have a bad memory for small details, regardless
of which story they are reading. It may also be a good idea to ask the students what they
are interested in, to determine if the real differences actually lie in one’s interests, as
opposed to one’s gender.
57
�V. References
Gabriel, S. & Gardner, W.L. (1999). Are there "his" and "hers" types of
interdependence? The implications of gender differences in collective versus relational
interdependence for affect, behavior, and cognition. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 77(3), 642-655.
Ionescu, M. D. (2002). Sex differences in memory estimates, revisited. Psychological
Reports, 91, 167-172.
Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Cognitive Psychology (3rd ed.). California:
Wadsworth/Thompson Learning, Inc.
58
�GPA and Study Habits: The Relationship between Study
Habits and Grade Point Average in College Students
Jenny Ludvigsen1 (Psychology)
Past research indicates that there is a relationship between study techniques and Grade
Point Average (GPA). This study attempted to show that students with better study
habits get better grades. There were forty-five participants in the study with fifteen
people in each GPA interval. Participants answered a questionnaire that was broken
down into 4 sub-scales measuring different methods of studying and general habits of
lifestyle. The results showed significant differences in the Study Habits Inventory (SHI)
of the three groups and supported the hypothesis that students with better study habits
receive higher grades.
I. Introduction
The purpose of this study is to propose that there is a relationship between the
way in which a college student studies (reads, takes notes, plans and organized their
school work) and their Grade Point Average. What makes an A student different from a
C student? Are the A students getting better grades because they are gifted and do not do
things differently than C students? Or, are the A students doing something that the C
students are not? What is different in the lives of students and how can one go from a C
to an A?
A body of research has suggested that there may be a relationship between the
way a student studies and their Grade Point Average (GPA). Jones, Slate and Kyle
(1992) reported that high achieving college students have better study skills than low
achieving students in areas of time management, study techniques, and attitudes toward
learning. Di Vesta and Moreno (1993) found that students with high GPA practice selfawareness, purposeful planning, and self-adjustment activities more than students with
low GPA (Hilawani & Sartawi, 1997). Researchers have consistently reported a positive
relationship between study habits and academic success (Lammers, Onwuegbuzie &
Slate, 2001).
Students may not be aware of the benefits or tolls of their techniques of studying
or thinking a certain way, but it may be helpful for students with low grades to alter their
1
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Richard Brower (Psychology)
59
�study-habits in order to boost performance in school. Bliss and Muller (1993) found a
strong correlation between scores on a study behavior inventory, a scale for measuring
study skills, and semester GPA (Hilawani & Sartawi, 1997).
Stoynoff (1997) studied the factors associated with International student’s
academic achievement. He sampled 77 international students who enrolled as freshmen
at a University in the Northwest. They all had a minimum GPA of 3.0 and a Test of
English as a foreign Language (TOEFL) score of 500. During their first term they took
the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) that asked them whether they
received training in learning and study strategies. There was a strong correlation between
the LASSI and cumulative GPA. The results show a relationship between motivation,
study strategies and test taking techniques and international students’ academic
achievement. Stoynoff also found differences in high achievers and low achievers by
interviewing the international students about their study-habits. He noticed that the
students that read more did better on reading assignments, and that students with higher
GPA sought social assistance, ie; study groups to review information.
John Lucas (1991) conducted a study at William Rainey Harper College to
evaluate the effectiveness of a new academic probation intervention program. 278
students who were put on probation for having a GPA lower than 2.0 were required to
participate in a success-oriented intervention program. They were surveyed over the
phone before they started the intervention program and after the program. They learned
effective study skills of reading for content and note taking techniques. Students
improved their grades and 35% of the participants reported that poor study habits were
the primary cause of their low GPA.
Lammers, Onwuegbuzie and Slate (2001) examined 366 undergraduate
student’s study skills as a function of age, gender, year in college, academic achievement,
study time and employment status. The students completed a questionnaire in which
demographic information was elicited and a validated 63 true-false item study-habits
inventory was included. Results indicate that study habits were related positively to age,
GPA, and the number of hours spent studying each week, and negatively related to the
number of hours spent working each week.
This study attempted to evaluate the study habits of three GPA groups. It was
expected that students in the high GPA group would show high scores on the Study
Habits Inventory (SHI), and students in the low GPA group would show low scores on
the SHI.
60
�II. Method
Participants
Forty-five participants took part in this study. Participants were students at
Wagner College enrolled in one of Dr.Brower’s Psychology courses. Participants in the
study were asked to partake in the study to fulfill the requirements of fellow classmates.
Between the two classes that the test was administered to, 13 were men and 32 were
women. The men and women each had a mean age of 20.1429 with a range from 18 to
21 years. All the participants share Psychology as a concentration.
Procedure
Participants were instructed to take the questions seriously and answer as
honesty as possible. Personal information asked of each participant was GPA, major,
year in school, age and gender. Clearly printed on the top of the survey were instructions
from and expectations of the test giver. Participants answered a 38 question Study-Habits
Inventory that was divided into 4 separate categories. The categories were titled:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Reading and note-taking techniques.
Habits of concentration
Distribution of time and social relationships in study.
General habits and attitudes of work.
The tests questions were direct and simple, requiring participants to circle whether they
did something rarely or never, sometimes, or often or always. Before totaling up the
scores for each individual survey, the completed surveys were divided into three equal
groups of 15. The groups were sorted together by common GPA. Low GPA was below
3.0, middle GPA was between 3.0 and 3.5 and high GPA was above 3.5.
Points were totaled for each sub-scale separately for the three groups,
designating 3 points, 2 points or 1 point each selected answer. The highest score that an
individual could have obtained in total was 82. The maximum score for each individual
in section A was 15. The maximum score for section B was 12. The maximum score for
section C was 24 and the maximum score for section D was 31.
Materials
See Appendix A for a copy of the Study-Habits Inventory (SHI).
61
�III. Results
Table 1 displays the points that each group obtained for each sub-scale. It is
shown that the lower GPA group scored significantly lower than the high GPA group,
within the sub-scales, and overall. Table 2 shows a frequency distribution of each GPA
group. It is shown that the total scores of the entire survey varied between the individuals
in the three GPA groups. The range of scores for the Low GPA group was 46 to 60. The
range of scores for the middle GPA group was 57 to 69. The range of scores for the high
GPA group was 70 to 81. The mean score for the low GPA group on the SHI was 57.8.
The mean for the middle GPA group was 63.8 and the mean for the high GPA group was
76.
The Pearson Product Moment 2 tailed Correlation showed a significant
relationship between the three GPA group’s sub-scales at the .01 level (See Table 3 for
Pearson correlation).
An ANOVA, in which GPA was the independent variable, was performed on the
data for self-reported study habits. The analysis of this data yielded significant effects for
each GPA interval, F(2,42)=109.02, p<.001. The sub-scales of the three groups were
found to be significantly significant; A: F(2,42)=110.26, p<.001; B: F(2,42)=63.32,
p<.001; C: F(2,42)=44.97, p<.001; D: F(2,42)=29.21, p<.001.
IV. Discussion
The present findings serve to replicate, extend and support those reported in
similar previous research. The significant differences in the SHI scores of the three GPA
groups is evidence of the effects of study-habits on school grades. It is important for
students to understand the relationship between the techniques they use to study and the
effects that it has on the grades that they receive. Testbusters is a program that teaches
effective study habits, study skills and test taking strategies, which has overall shown
GPA improvements significantly (Beidel, Turner, Taylor & Jill, 1999). Cooper and
Robinson (1987) found that the combination of skills acquisition and peer support
contributed to improvements in student GPA and self-concept of ability. The results of
this study and similar studies indicate that there may be a strong relationship between
study habits and GPA, as expected.
On many occasions, I have heard of parents blaming their children for getting
bad grades because they “do not apply themselves”, but it can be argued that it is not the
child’s fault for the bad grades, but the fault of the study techniques that they use, and the
duration of time spent studying. The aforementioned studies discussed the benefits of
intervention programs and study help sessions to improve GPA, therefore it may be
helpful to change a technique or habit of studying and note taking, and assess time
management skills if a student’s grades are not where the should be.
62
�V. References
Beidel, D., Turner, S., Taylor, F. and Jill, C. (1999). Teaching study skills and testtaking strategies to elementary school students: The testbusters program. Behavior
Modification, 23 (4), 630-646.
Cooper, S. and Robinson, D. (1987). The effects of a structured academic support group
on GPA and self-concept of ability. Techniques, 3 (4), 260-264.
Hilawani & Sartawi (1997). Study skills and habits of female university students.
College Student Journal, 31, (4), 537-544.
Lammers, W., Onwuegbuzie, A., and Slate, J. (2001). Academic success as a function of
the gender, class, race, age, study habits, and employment of college students. Research
in the Schools, 8 (2), 71-81.
Lucas, J. (1990). Evaluation of new probation intervention program at Harper College.
Willian Rainey Harper College Journal of Planning and Research, 20 (4), 2-27.
Stoynoff, S. (1997). Factors associated with international student’s academic
achievement. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 24 (1), 56-68.
Table 1: Total sub-scale scores and GPA
Low GPA
A= 107/225
B= 93/180
C= 250/360
D= 360/465
Total= 810/1230
Middle GPA
A= 150/225
B= 124/180
C= 299/360
D= 385/465
Total= 958/1230
63
High GPA
A= 202/225
B= 167/180
C= 332/360
D= 421/465
Total= 1122/1230
�Table 2a: Low GPA total scores on SHI (N=15, x=57.8)
Score
Frequency Distribution
46
1
49
1
50
1
51
2
52
2
53
1
54
1
55
1
57
2
60
4
Table 2b: Middle GPA scores on SHI (N=15, x=63.8)
Score
Frequency Distribution
57
1
58
2
59
1
61
1
64
2
65
2
66
1
67
2
68
1
69
2
64
�Table 2c: High GPA total scores on SHI (N=15, x=76 )
*
Score
70
Frequency Distribution
2
72
1
73
1
74
1
76
3
77
1
78
2
79
1
80
2
81
1
Table 3: Pearson Correlation of sub-scales
A
A
B
C
D
.921
.876
.738
.837
.699
B
.921
C
.876
.837
D
.738
.699
.606
.606
65
�66
�Section IV: Critical Essays
�Van Gogh and Gauguin
Kimberly Kopko1 (History)
From English wood cutters to Old Dutch Masters: Influences on the Early works of van
Gogh, 1881-1886
When one hears the name “van Gogh” it often brings to mind colorful paintings
of a French landscape, bright sunflowers, or a ‘starry night,’ all of which are images from
the artist’s later years. Rarely does one immediately reflect on Vincent van Gogh’s early
works. Only a select few of these works, characteristically dark in hue, are considered
big van Gogh sellers on the art market, yet; it is these seeds of underacknowlaged works
that matured into what are presently considered van Gogh masterpieces. The early works
of van Gogh, completed between the years of 1881 and 1886, show experimentation with
various styles and themes, which eventually merged to develop a personal style. While
van Gogh drew inspiration from various artists and styles, English wood engravers,
Millet and the Barbizon School, contemporary Hague School artists, and Old Dutch
Tradition and its masters, were primary influences in his early works.
Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) was exposed to the world of art at a young age
by having three uncles who ran art galleries in Amsterdam, The Hague, and Rotterdam
(Keys, 21). At the age of sixteen, van Gogh obtained an art dealing position with Goupils
and Co. and this gave him first hand exposure to the popular works of the day. Over the
course of his employment, Vincent collected several prints of his favorite images by
Ruisdael and Rembrandt, seventeenth century Old Dutch Masters, for his personal
apartment. Eventually, van Gogh was dismissed from Goupils and Co. for poor
salesmanship and this, among other issues, created tensions within the van Gogh family.
It was at this time that van Gogh undertook a heavy reading of literature, gaining
particular insight from John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. “Bunyan believed that those
most worthy of God’s grace were the lowly workmen and the poor, who were endowed
with a natural spiritual advantage because of their humility, self-denial, and renunciation
of the trappings of worldly wealth” (Keys, 22). This and several other writings
encouraged van Gogh to follow in the footsteps of his father and study theology; he felt
that “evangelical zeal could give his life purpose” (Keys, 23). In time, van Gogh was
sent to be a preacher to a poor mining district in the Borinage region of Belgium, but
unfortunately was released due to his overwhelming desire to live a poor, underprivileged
1
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Laura A. Morowitz (Art)
68
�lifestyle similar to the miners. Finally in December of 1881, Vincent moved to The
Hague to become an artist.
“It was during his years in The Hague that Vincent’s art came to express his
deep-seated sense of moral purpose” (Keys, 23). In the months leading up to his move,
van Gogh received drawing and painting lessons from his cousin Anton Mauve, an
established painter at The Hague. This relationship grew strong as well as extended to
include other prized artists from The Hague School such as Josef Israëls, George Hendrik
Breitner and Herman Johannes van der Weele (Keys, 23). Unfortunately, this took a sour
turn when van Gogh chose to take the prostitute Clasina Hoornik (Sien) under his wing.
The Sien problem grew out of hand and van Gogh left both the prostitute and The Hague
and moved to Drenthe where he was exposed to the “unindustrialized” landscapes of the
Old Masters and working peasant life. After a short stay of three months, Vincent moved
in with his parents in Neunen. As predicted this produced tension among the family and
after a brief stay at The Academy, van Gogh moved to Paris to live with his close brother
Theo van Gogh.
One of the major influences on works that van Gogh created during his stay at
The Hague was English wood engravers. Vincent was an avid reader of the periodical
magazine The Graphic, “which had published wood engravings representing the poor and
downtrodden in the 1870s, images that Vincent specifically connected with Sien and
valued as another modern gospel” (Druick, 32). In 1875, The Graphic produced a series
of ten illustrations called “Heads of the People,” which depicted individuals in various
occupations such as miner, drayman, and agricultural laborer. Van Gogh attempted a
similar work of this nature when he painted head studies of peasants in Nuenen in 1883,
but this group of studies was not completed until May 1885 (I. Tilborgh, Vellekoop, 84).
Even earlier than 1883, van Gogh attempted a study on heads, similar to the
illustrations in The Graphic, where he drew portraits of old fisherman. Fishermen
seemed like a suitable subject to represent the working class while van Gogh studied at
The Hague because the area was primarily known for its fishing industry. In reality, van
Gogh’s fishermen were men from the Dutch Reformed Old People’s Home that he
dressed up, nevertheless van Gogh’s intention was to represent realistically men who had
lived a life of difficult work. “In summary, van Gogh’s heads were inspired in form by a
specific example of English engraved illustration, while their subject, fishermen, was
related to contemporary Netherlandish artistic practice” (Soth, 67).
Another primary influence in van Gogh’s early work, and even his later works,
was artists of the French Barbizon School, in particular the Realist Jean-François Millet.
Van Gogh was first introduced to Millet at an exhibition of Barbizon paintings held at the
Academy of Fine Arts in the Hague in 1882 (Keys, 24). In addition, van Gogh read an
extremely biased book by Alfred Sensier which gave him a heroic, Christian loving
69
�image of the well known Realist (II. Tilborgh, Vellekoop, 10). What drew van Gogh to
Millet was the connection to the Realist and van Gogh’s father. Since van Gogh could
not fulfill his father’s mission of priesthood, he conveyed it through artwork in the style
of Millet, paying homage to the hardworking peasants.
The connection he [van Gogh] discerned between Christian beliefs and the art of
these masters [the Realists] enabled him to transform his ideal of a Christian worker
and minister in the footsteps of his father into that of an artist with a calling. A
precondition was that the work of peasant painters like Millet and Jules Breton
should not be interpreted as revolutionary, but rather as Christian and conservative in
character (Tsukasa, 134).
In numerous letters to his brother Theo, van Gogh mentions Millet’s ability to express
real subjects while simultaneously expressing “quelque chose là-haute” (“something on
high”)(I. Tilborgh, Vellekoop, 12).
Millet, often referred to as “Father Millet”, furnishes the majority of
reproductions that van Gogh does in his early studies. Often he copied the works of
Millet to aid in his figure and compositional studies (McQuillan, 107). Most notable of
his reproductions is van Gogh’s thirteen varying images on Millet’s Sower. Vincent
often referred to his early studies of Millet as “the seed for further sowing that might
produce a harvest of saleable work, and in describing his relentless attempts to master
drawing in terms of improving the quality of the seed” (Druick, 30). Van Gogh did
several versions of Millet’s Sower in order to track his progress in figural studies through
the years. Moreover, the Sower held a spiritual meaning for van Gogh, “the sower
presents Vincent’s earlier ambition to be a Christian laborer and sower of God’s
world…following the example of ‘Father Millet,’ whose Sower embodies his
‘evangelical tone’”(Keys, 31).
However, there is one primary difference in van Gogh’s studies of the Sower
that set him apart from the well known Realist. His peasants are typically more
individualized figures. This is because van Gogh used live models, dissimilar to the
traditional way of learning figural drawing through models and figure casts. This
individuality creates a reference to Rembrandt and the Old Dutch Masters of the
Netherlands, who also characteristically used live models for their paintings.
Furthermore, when van Gogh relocated to Nuenen, he remained true to peasant
depictions but drew and painted loom weavers, the distinctive peasant occupation in
Nuenen. “The weaver, like the sower, came to symbolize artistic aspirations, maintained
in the face of adverse social, economic, and spiritual conditions; Vincent identified with
these workers in his desire to equate art-making with wage-earning craft” (Druick, 34).
Initially these works focused on the task at hand, making reference back to Millet’s
laboring peasant. This can be seen in the paintings Woman Winding Yarn, 1885 and
70
�Weaver Arranging Threads, 1884, where the light focuses on the task rather than the
worker’s face. Similar to his peasant drawings from Drenthe and his time at The Hague,
van Gogh begins to focus on the worker’s faces, integrating, once again, a sense of
individualism reminiscent of artists like Rembrandt. This is articulated in van Gogh’s
drawing Weaver Facing Right, 1884, where the weaver’s face carries the most detail and
immediately draws the attention of the viewer over the task being performed by his
nimble fingers. Nonetheless, Millet’s influence on van Gogh’s early works is apparent in
almost all his images. The Realist dedication to the hard working peasant is a theme van
Gogh remained true to until his death in 1890.
During his three year study at The Hague, which carried deep roots in
seventeenth century Dutch genre painting, Vincent was exposed to works by “Old
Masters” as well as contemporary Dutch artists such as Josef Israëls, Breitner and van der
Weele, all of whom had a deep influence on van Gogh, both personally and artistically.
“The Hague School represented the most advanced artistic position of the day in
Holland…Rejecting historical subjects executed in a dry academic manner, these painters
turned instead to landscape and peasant themes inspired both by the Barbizon School in
France and by Dutch artists of the seventeenth century” (Murray, 412). The Hague artists
added a contemporary flare to old Dutch traditions such as landscape painting, still lifes
and seascapes.
In addition to subject matter, The Hague artists and ultimately van Gogh,
adopted elements such as low horizons and one point linear perspective in their works, an
element which originated in seventeenth century Dutch painting. “The recessional device
of a tree-lined road, canal or towpath is found repeatedly in landscapes of The Hague
School, and stems ultimately from Dutch landscapes of the seventeenth century such as
The Avenue, Middleharnis by Hobbema” (Murray, 416). This use of perspective is
obvious in van Gogh’s Avenue of Poplars with Figure, 1884. Here, van Gogh creates a
one point linear perspective but instead of having it merge at one vanishing point on the
horizon, he places a house at the end, abruptly ending the line. In addition to line, color
was an important element present in The Hague School. Characteristically their works
were very dark in shade. This was a common criticism of both the school and the
majority of van Gogh’s early works. In van Gogh’s early works, such as Farm with Stack
of Peat (1883) and Still Life with Birds Nest (1885) the image is almost indistinguishable
and there is a total absence of light. Not until van Gogh read Charles Blanc’s
“Grammaire des arts du dessin” did he become enlightened on ideas surrounding color
theory. Eventually van Gogh grew to be at odds with The Hague School and moved to
Drenthe where he focused primarily on seventeenth century Dutch genre painting.
Seventeenth century Dutch painting and its masters are the ultimate influence on
the early works of Vincent van Gogh. Dutch roots are present in all of the other
71
�influences that played a roll in van Gogh’s development, the biggest example being The
Hague School. Van Gogh held particular interest in Hals, Rembrandt and the
landscapists Ruisdael and Hobbema. In Rembrandt’s images, he admired the use of light
within dark spaces, as well as the individuality of the subjects, and in Hals, van Gogh
admired the quick, unfinished brushstrokes. In October of 1885, van Gogh made a
journey to Amsterdam to visit the newly opened Rijksmuseum to view works by Hals and
Rembrandt (Keys, 40). In a letter to Theo, Vincent expresses his fascination with the
painting techniques that he saw at the museum: “What struck me most on seeing the old
Dutch pictures again is that most of them were painted quickly, and that these great
masters, such as Frans Hals, a Rembrandt, a Ruysdael and so many others –dashed off a
thing from the first stroke and did not retouch it so very much” (Keys, 40). Van Gogh’s
love for abrupt and unfinished brushstrokes is something that he developed throughout
his lifetime as an artist and it eventually became one of the most distinguishable factors
in a van Gogh painting.
In addition to the great masters like Hals and Rembrandt, van Gogh admired the
naturalism and the timelessness of the settings characteristically represented in Dutch
genre painting. Especially living in Drenthe, van Gogh felt that he was experiencing the
same landscape depicted in the Old Masters’ works. Van Gogh describes this feeling in
several letters to his brother Theo:
…but if you come to the most remote back country of Drenthe, it will make
quite a different impression on you, you will even feel just as if you lived in the
time of van Goyen, Ruysdael, Michel, in short, in what perhaps one hardly feels
even in the present Barbizon. That is an important thing, I think, for in such
natural surroundings, things can be roused in a heart, things which would
otherwise never have been awakened (qtd. in Keys, 37).
In addition to the timelessness of the landscapes, van Gogh admired the motifs expressed
in Dutch genre painting. Still lifes were a prominent trait in Dutch genre painting and
the clarity and use of light in these images were useful in the training of an early artist.
This concept was strongly enforced by Mauve and is why van Gogh’s first works pay
tribute to the motif. Peasant and working themes were also characteristic of Dutch genre
paintings. Dutch artists depicted worked fields, dirt roads with deep furrows, as well as
tiny workers speckled throughout the image, all indications of habitation. This
influenced Realists like Millet who played a major role in van Gogh’s development as an
artist. Van Gogh admired hard working peasants and a great deal of his early works
depict peasants hunched over, tending to the fields. Moreover, furrows can be depicted
in van Gogh’s Avenue of Poplars with Figure, previously mentioned, indicating an
inhabited Dutch setting.
72
�Vincent also did several works of windmills and seascapes, both characteristic
genre subjects of seventeenth century Holland. While van Gogh did few studies of
windmills in The Hague and Nuenen, he did adopt the theme once traveling to Paris and
viewing all the windmills of Monmartre. This windmill motif can be observed in Le
Moulin de la Galette (1886) and Monmartre: Quarry, the Mill (1886).
While studying at The Hague, van Gogh was exposed to a prominent fishing
community, which offered several opportunities to paint seascapes. One of van Gogh’s
most well known seascapes is View of the Sea at Schiveningen. When viewing this image
in comparison with Beached Boat with Horses (1882) by Hague artist Anton Mauve and
a seventeenth century work such as Ships on a Stormy Sea (1610) by Jan Porcellis, one
can see the influences each era had on van Gogh. All three depict sea scenes but at
different times in the ship’s voyage: Porcellis’ being the adventure on the sea during a
storm, van Gogh’s image depicting the return after a storm and Mauve’s painting
conveying the safety of being securely on land. The color scheme is similar between all
the works, consisting of a dull palette of greens, blues and tans. The lines are all
extremely naturalistic with Porcellis’ holding the highest degree of detail and van Gogh’s
being the most rough. All three make use of perspective but the seventeenth century
image has the lowest horizon, with van Gogh and Mauve’s being relatively centered.
Moreover, all the images show the violent thrashing of the waves by painting white peaks
where they crash against land and the ships.
While there are generally similarities between the images, one can notice the
subtle changes through time. The old Dutch image holds far more clarity than in van
Gogh’s image where the brush strokes are very visible, reflecting influence from the
French schools. Mauve’s image has almost a Realist stylistic sense to it, with the
workers and their horses struggling to pull the boat ashore.
Another comparison that shows the influences of various epochs and styles in
van Gogh’s early works is van Gogh’s Potato Eaters (1885), Israël’s The Frugal Meal
(1876), and Rembrandt’s Pilgrims at Emmaus (1648). Van Gogh was first inspired by
Rembrandt’s image in 1875 when he viewed it in Paris. He wrote to Theo:
And so what Rembrandt has alone or almost alone among painters, that
tenderness of gaze which we see, whether it’s in the “Men of Emmaus” or in the
“Jewish Bride” or in some such strange angelic figure as the picture you have
had the good fortune to see, that heartbroken tenderness, that glimpse of a
superhuman infinitude that seems so natural there –in many places you come
upon it in Shakespeare too (Keys, 43).
Vincent also shows admiration for numerous images by Israëls, which depicted “pious
religious associates in peasant subjects” (Keys, 44). In all the images, the figures were
eating food with their labor-ridden hands that they themselves worked hard to earn.
73
�In all the images, the table occupies a little carved out niche in the space of the
room. The light is focusing primarily on the table, drawing the viewers’ focus. The
exception is in Rembrandt’s image where there is a holy light emanating from a Christ
figure at the center of the image. Van Gogh’s image shows the influence of Rembrandt
by having one light source in the center, which reflects off of all the figures’ faces. All
three show pious devotion, Rembrandt’s taking that theme the farthest and actually
depicting a scene with Christ. The Frugal Meal and The Potato Eaters clearly depicts
peasant lifestyles with simple furniture, little food and simple, worn clothes.
Rembrandt’s image also depicts rustic life by having a simple wooden table and chairs.
Christ is situated at this modest table, putting him on the same level as the peasants. This
implies that Christ loves and shows mercy to all, including the lowly peasant class.
Fundamentally, all the images are naturalistic with van Gogh’s being, as usual,
the most deviant from the naturalistic mold. The lines are extremely blended in
Rembrandt’s image and in Israël’s image, there is only slight variation on that theme. He
shows the French influence by having quicker, more abrupt strokes. Van Gogh’s brush
strokes are clearly visible, showing the differentiation from Rembrandt. All three make
use of extremely dark hues. It seems as if the canvas was first painted black and then the
lighter colors added. Both van Gogh and Israëls pay homage to Rembrandt and other
Dutch masters and one can see the influence Dutch works such as Pilgrims at Emmaus
had on the artists of The Hague School.
While there were many influences on the early works of Vincent van Gogh, old
Dutch genre painting and its masters were the backbone. The Hague school was based on
seventeenth century Dutch painting, as well as ideas of the difficult, hardworking peasant
lifestyle captured by French Barbizon artists such as Millet. Many styles and elements
that van Gogh studied, especially at the Hague, were carried throughout all his works,
including his later ones. Van Gogh had a love for pious hard working men and women,
and painting fulfilled this theological passion. Themes of this nature are represented in
works ranging from English wood carvers to French artists as well as Dutch artists of
various centuries, all of whom played a role in influencing the early works of the famed
Vincent van Gogh.
Works Cited/ Bibliography
Druick, Douglas. Van Gogh and Gauguin: Studio of the South. Chicago: Thames &
Hudson, 2001.
Fuchs, R.H. Dutch Painting. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
74
�Gowing, Lawrence. Paintings in the Louvre. New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang.
1987.
Keys, George and Lauren Soth. Van Gogh Face to Face: “The Dutch Roots of Vincent
van Gogh” and “Fantasy and Reality in The Hague Drawings”. Michigan: The Detroit
Institute of Arts, 2000.
McQuillan, Melissa. Van Gogh. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1989.
Murray, Ann. “Strange and Subtle Perspective: Van Gogh, The Hague School and the
Dutch Landscape Tradition.” Art History 3.4 Dec. 1980: 410-424.
Rozniatowski, David, Rev. “Art in the Age of Van Gogh: Dutch paintings from the
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Winnipeg Art Gallery.” Border Crossings 18.3 Aug. 1999:
60-62.
Tilborgh, Louis van and Marij Vellekoop. Vincent van Gogh Paintings Vol. I: Dutch
Period 1881-1885, Van Gogh Museum. Great Britain: Lund Humphries Publishers Ltd.,
1999.
Tilborgh, Louis van and Marije Vellekoop, ed. Van Gogh and Millet. Netherlands:
Waanders/Zwolle, 1989.
Tsukasa, Kōdera ed. The Mythology of Vincent van Gogh. Japan: Asahi National
Broadcasting Co, Ltd., 1992.
75
�Housewife to an Empowered War Hero:
The Feministic Transformation of the Disney Princesses
Kimberly Litto1 (English)
For over fifty years, the animated films of Walt Disney have been a central part of the
everyday lives of children. The classics and the new classics have become standard fare,
especially in the culture of America. These films are so much a part of the lives of the
children and also, at times, the adults of our country, questions should be asked as to just
what is in these movies that our population is consuming so regularly. Who are the
Disney characters many grow up admiring and how do they represent the people of the
world?
One way to approach this question is through a feminist point of view.
Common sense can tell us that the female representation of a cheerful, whistling, cooking
and cleaning girl in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is not in accordance with the
fundamentals of feminist thinkers. It is most likely provable that this is true for all of
Disney’s earliest films, but is it still true in the more recent animated movies by Disney?
Is there any hope for feminists that their children will grow up admiring females that are
able to stand for the liberated woman of today? The answer to this question is justifiably
yes. By studying the various aspects of the Disney princesses from the first full length
animated picture, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), to a later film, The Little
Mermaid (1989), and finally to a recent film, Mulan (1998), it is evident that the leading
ladies of Disney have made a long, but progressive journey from a conventional
housewife to the representation of a modernized woman.
One aspect in which this progression is evident is in the animation of the three
characters: Snow White, Ariel, and Mulan. “Lips, red as the rose, hair, black as ebony,
skin, white as snow”. With this description the magic mirror is describing the “fairest
one of all”, Snow White.” 2 It is through this description and by studying her flawless
appearance that it becomes evident that she is meant to personify the perfection of
beauty. There is not a blemish on her impeccable skin and although she is forced to wear
rags, she never appears sloppy or unfinished. Her hair is always tidily fixed; even against
a river and the strong winds that blow through the dark forest, she remains with a
perfectly placed red bow and smooth curls.
1
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Laura A. Morowitz (Art)
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, film, prod. Walt Disney Productions, dir. David
Hand, Perce Pearce, Larry Morey, William Cottrell, Wilfred Jackson, and Ben
Sharpsteen, 100 min., Buena Vista Picture Distributions, 1937.
2
76
�Another aspect of Snow White’s animation is her stereotypically feminine body
movement. With every motion, Snow White maneuvers her body with dainty elegance.
Her thin arms seem to float about her lovely frame and she always touches with a delicate
hand, with two fingers gracefully raised. When she laughs she slightly parts her deep red
lips into an elegant smile as she girlishly tilts back her head and squints her long lashed
eyelids flirtatiously. Snow White’s excessive femininity is heightened by the overly
sweet, high-pitched voice with which she speaks and sings. Interestingly, it is discussed
by Elizabeth Bell that the Disney females are usually drawn by observing live models. In
the early films, the models would have been professional ballerinas. 3 It is evident by the
choice of model that Disney intended on producing a character who completely
personified what at the time was perceived as “feminine.”
The radiance and precision of Snow White’s beauty, plus her overly feminine
body movement, work together to create a particular type of portrayal. That portrayal is
of a woman who completely encapsulates the qualities, which are quintessentially desired
by a man, in a woman. As a result, Snow White becomes only an object of male desire.
Furthermore, not only is she beautiful, but also the entire plot of the movie is based on
that quality. If the evil queen was not madly jealous of Snow White’s appearance, the
latter would not have left the castle and encountered the dwarfs and their cottage.
Because of this large focus on her beauty, spectators are encouraged further to see her as
merely an object to be viewed. This notion is emphasized in a scene in which the dwarfs
first encounter Snow White. As she lays on the beds, sleeping, the seven men surround
her and stare in awe at her exquisiteness, as she sleeps. The fact that she is unaware of
their gaze and therefore cannot return it works to underscore the objectification of her
body and face. 4
The Little Mermaid also shows evidence of objectification of the female body,
and, here, it carries sexual implications. Throughout a large portion of the movie Ariel’s
clothing is scarce. Pauline Kael described the mermaid as “a teen-age tootsie in a flirty
seashell bra.” 5 Ariel’s back, stomach, and part of her breasts are constantly exposed as
3
Elizabeth Bell, “Somatexts at the Disney Shop: Constructing the Pentimentos of
Women’s Animated Bodies,” in From Mouse to Mermaid: The Politics of Film, Gender,
and Culture, ed. Elizabeth Bell, Lynda Haas, and Laura Sells (Bloomington and
Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1995), 110.
4
In her article “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (Screen 16, no. 3, Autumn 1975:
6-18), Laura Mulvey discusses the sexist sexual imbalance present in concept of the gaze
in the cinematic industry. She describes this sexist split between the active male, who
possesses the power of vision over the passive female, who possesses only “to-be-lookedat-ness” (11).
5
Quoted in Bell, 114.
77
�she swims throughout the sea. Although it is obvious that her attire fits her environment,
it is also evident that this is used to the advantage of her sexualized objectification. Bell
notes the first appearance of Ariel when she is posed behind a broken mast of a ship and
appears topless. Bell refers to this as a “striptease pose” that purposely increases the
curiosity of the audience towards the question of Ariel’s possible nudity. 6
In addition, below Ariel’s uncovered naval her fin dips into a low ‘v’ shape.
Although Ariel is not human it appears as though if the ‘v’ was any lower on her body,
her genitalia would be exposed, and therefore it seems to be an implication of what may
exist behind her green-scaled fin. Moreover, the ‘v’ takes the form of an arrow pointing
at the area between her legs, and furthermore, the shape echoes that of a triangle,
producing an even further suggestion of female sexual organs. It is easily apparent that
this type of depiction is not necessary in a children’s movie and therefore is used instead
for the objectification of Ariel’s body. In addition, not unlike Snow White, her body is
one of perfection based on the expectations of the society in which she was made. 7
However, we can also see some progression from Snow White’s appearance to
that of Ariel. While, Snow White’s exterior is constantly fixed and tidied, fitting the
quintessential female role, Ariel’s is the opposite. Her hair is long and flaming red in
color and as she swims and even when she becomes human, it is continually flowing and
moving in a freely unbounded manner. O’Brien refers to this characteristic of Ariel also:
“she tosses her long red hair in defiant moves.” 8 Trivial as her hair may seem, it works
as a symbol of the fact that Ariel is not allowing herself to be oppressed. She is instead
attempting to free herself of the constraints placed on her by her father and others. Thus,
her hair can show the start of movement away from the prototypical repressed female
representation to a more liberated state.
The physical animation of the Disney females makes a major shift with the
drawing of Mulan. Firstly, as mentioned earlier, Snow White is given an appearance of
perfectly exquisite beauty, on which the entire plot of the movie is based. In contrast, the
percentage of the plot of the latter movie that deals with the subject of Mulan’s beauty is
extremely small, even almost played down in certain scenes. For example, early in the
movie, Mulan is preparing to meet the matchmaker. After being worked on by hair
dressers, make-up artists, and clothing stylists, she is walking through the town. She
passes by a chess game played by two men, stops, thinks quickly, and then makes a
6
Ibid., 114.
In “The Happiest Films on Earth: A Textual and Contextual Analysis of Walt Disney’s
Cinderella and The Little Mermaid,” in From Mouse to Mermaid, Pamela O’Brien states:
“Visually Ariel resembles an animated Barbie Doll with thin waste and prominent bust”
(173).
8
Ibid., 172.
7
78
�move, causing one of the men to be victorious. As a result, the spectators of the movie
are encouraged to recognize Mulan’s intellect, even during the scene, which celebrates
her beauty. This is a large divergence from Snow White, which gives the audience no
information about the title character, except her beauty. This quality is fitting to a
feminist view because it implies that a woman’s worth depends on more than her physical
beauty. In addition, because the movie does not emphasize her physical appearance,
Mulan is not turned into an object to be viewed. 9
Moreover, Mulan presents a strong divergence from the sensual objectification
of The Little Mermaid. Mulan’s story is one of a girl who poses as a male to join the
army in order to save her father’s life. As a result, for most of the movie, her body is
covered in the armor of a Chinese soldier. However, in contrast to Ariel, prior to
Mulan’s “transformation” she is not given any overtly sexualized characteristics that have
sexual implications. Her body is actually drawn with box-like angles: her knees and
shoulders have sharp turns and her figure lacks any curves. Her breasts are almost
ignored, with little emphasis on them. A single scene in the movie proves this
characteristic of her animation. In the scene in which Mulan’s sex is revealed, her
captain sees her without her armor, wearing only a bandage. He recognizes the fact that
she has breasts and then realizes she is a woman. Even in this moment, the presence of
Mulan’s breasts is only implied. The actual animation still fails to emphasize her chest
for the audience. As a result, spectators cannot focus on the sexuality of her body.
Feminists would be more content with Mulan’s animation because it indicates the idea
that a woman is not merely an element of sexual desire.
Another area in which there is proof of Disney’s progress toward an updated
heroine is in the dreams and goals to which the princesses are aspiring. Henke, Umble,
and Smith discuss the idea that many Disney females have dreams for which they are
striving. The details of these aspirations vary from movie to movie, as does the female
involvement in realizing them. 10 It is in these aspects where the evidence of progress
lies.
In Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the heroine expresses a single desire
throughout the film. She reveals this wish very early in the movie as she sings to the
wishing well: “I’m wishing for the one I love to find me today.” 11 Snow White’s only
ambition in her story is to meet a prince, who will fall in madly in love with her, and
bring her to his castle “far, far away.” This characteristic carries sexist implications
9
Mulvey, 11.
Jill Birnie Henke, Nancy J. Smith, Diana Zimmerman Umble, “Construction of the
Female Self: Feminist Readings of the Disney Heroine,” Women’s Studies in
Communication 19 (1996): 229-247.
11
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.
10
79
�because it implies that women cannot find satisfaction by their own accord, but instead
need men to bring them to happiness. Also, although Snow White’s dream is fulfilled by
the end of the movie, she has not had any part in making that dream come true. She
basically sits around singing, whistling, and cleaning, as she waits for her love to come
take her away. Not only is the content of her dream one with sexist overtones, but also
the way in which it is accomplished. Snow White’s lack of involvement in her own
happiness implies that women should be passive and patient, while men make all their
dreams come true.
Initially, in The Little Mermaid, it seems as though Ariel’s ambitions and
determination hold proof of a more independent female character. At the start of the
movie Ariel is constantly expressing her thirst for something beyond her world under the
sea. Despite her father’s desire to keep her under his control, Ariel does all she can to
learn about the human world for which she yearns. As Laura Sells explains Ariel is
longing for change and independence:
While singing, she caresses a book that she cannot read, expressing her longing
for knowledge. Her desire for access is characterized by her hunger and
fascination with a different world in which she believes she can have autonomy
and independence. 12
It is evident that Ariel’s dreams are very heavily endowed with feminist values.
However, as O’Brien discusses, Ariel loses all of these ambitions the moment she falls in
love with Eric: “Where once she wanted to become human to explore her intellectual
curiosity, she now wants to become human to be with her love.” O’Brien notes that,
although originally Ariel was on the path to a modern female, after meeting Eric she
regresses back to a traditional representation. 13
Henke, Umble, and Smith also discuss how Ariel originally seemed to be making her
own dreams come true: “she explores, she asks questions, she makes choices, and
she acts”, but ultimately this, too, changes. 14 In the end, Ariel needs her father to
change her to a human, in order to be with Eric: “it is still not her power, but her
father’s power which enables her dreams to come to fruition” (237). 15
In the recent film, Mulan, the main character’s dreams are quite complex. First, a
very feminist quality of her ambitions is the fact that she lacks the fixation of the
earlier Disney princesses on finding a husband. Instead, Mulan is yearning to make
her father and her family proud. After ruining her meeting with the matchmaker, she
is desperately wondering how she can please her family. Simultaneously, she is
12
Laura Sells, “Where do the Mermaids Stand?”, in From Mouse to Mermaid, 179.
O’Brien, 171.
14
Henke, Smith, and Umble, 236.
15
Ibid., 237.
13
80
�searching for herself. Mulan is struggling with the notion that she cannot truly be
who she is in the society in which she lives. Her troubles and dreams are evident in
the words of her song: “Now I see that if I were truly to be myself, I would break
my family’s heart…somehow I cannot hide who I am, though I’ve tried. When will
my reflection show who I am inside?” 16
It is arguable that Mulan’s strong desire to please her father can be an insulting
representation of women because Mulan is so focused on making the man in her life
proud of her. However, it is in the fulfillment of her dreams, that Mulan becomes an
advocate of female independence. By the end of the movie, Mulan has not changed
herself to please her father or to fill society’s expectations. Instead, she has been true
to herself and followed her own heart. She succeeds, not by becoming the perfect
wife, as would be expected, but by becoming a war heroine. As a result, it is her
father who changes and realizes how proud he is of his daughter, the way that she is:
“The greatest gift and honor is having you for a daughter.” 17 Therefore, Mulan
presents an image of a female who can be herself and prove that she is worthy of
respect and recognition, even if she has not acted like the norm of her society.
Another area in which we can see the development of the more modern heroine in
these three movies is in the females’ quality of naivety, or lack thereof, in relation to
their enemies. It is most obviously a problem for feminists when females are
associated with naivety, because it implies the idea that women are not of high
intelligence. Therefore, the presence of this quality in the Disney females is relevant
to their feministic progress.
The villain vying against Snow White is her wicked stepmother. At a late point
in the movie, the stepmother disguises herself as a decrepit old lady and visits the cottage
of Snow White and the seven dwarfs. When she approaches Snow White, the audience is
aware that the latter should refuse to interact with the old lady. However, the disguised
stepmother offers the princess a shiny red apple, which is poisoned, unbeknownst to
Snow White. The elderly woman tells Snow White that the apple is magical and one bite
will make all her dreams come true. Despite the warning from the dwarfs to avoid all
visitors, Snow White cannot resist the fruit and accepts a bite, causing her to fall into the
sleeping death.
One misogynistic aspect of this scene is the direct echoing of the story of Adam
and Eve. The creation story is very much underlined with sexist notions because it
encourages the idea that woman is the single cause of the negative repercussions of
existence, because of her surrender to temptation. By bringing us back to the Garden of
Eden, Snow White instills this sexist idea a second time.
16
Mulan, film, prod. Walt Disney Productions, dir. Barry Cook and Tony Bancroft, 100
min., Buena Vista Picture Distributions, 1998.
17
Ibid.
81
�Another sexist aspect of this scene is the fact that it is obviously extreme naivety
that allows Snow White to trust such a bizarre stranger and, in doing so, to perform such
an unintelligent act. This quality is emphasized by the fact that the spectators are
conscious of the truth, while the helpless young maid is unaware. Furthermore, she
actually believes the stranger’s claim that the apple can make her dreams come true.
Although this story contains magical situations, it seems quite gullible of Snow White to
accept this idea. Therefore, this representation of woman is one of highly degrading
quality because it depicts her as a person who makes dangerous decisions based on naïve
and immature reasons.
The Little Mermaid presents some similar aspects of naivety found in Snow
White and also evidence of progress away from that type of portrayal. In the plot of the
former, Ariel makes a deal with the eccentric sea-witch, Ursula. If Ariel fails to complete
her task of kissing Eric, her body and soul will belong to the sea-witch. It is apparent that
Ariel acts with naivety in signing Ursula’s contract. While the audience knows that, in
doing so, she is placing her trust in a deceptive creature, Ariel remains unaware. Ursula
has been banished from Triton’s kingdom, yet Ariel makes a binding agreement with the
exiled octopus, disregarding judgment and intellect. Thus, once again Disney depicts a
heroine possessing naïve qualities.
However, there is a difference present between the circumstances of Snow
White and Ariel. As mentioned earlier, Snow White’s enemy is under a disguise. We are
to assume that Snow White is not aware that the old woman is actually the evil queen. It
is highly unacceptable that Snow White would not think to question whom this elderly
woman is and why she is roaming about the forest bearing a magic apple. Therefore, her
naivety is only heightened by the disguise of her nemesis. Ariel, however, knows that
she is dealing with a sea-witch. Although it is naïve that she chooses to sign her life
away to this creature, she knows she is taking a risk. Ariel is aware that she is doing
something dangerous, while Snow White is innocently dreaming of her prince arriving
after she has bitten into the magic apple.
Finally, in the later film, Mulan, the title character is practically void of naivety.
After the Chinese army has defeated the Huns, the country is celebrating with an
extravagant parade; yet, Mulan is aware that the Huns have returned and the entire
country is in danger. As she attempts to inform the other members of the army, who are
all male, she is shunned and disregarded. While Mulan is trying to formulate a plan of
defense, the rest of China, including the emperor and the army, is celebrating with
fireworks, costumes, songs, and cheers. As a result, they become the naïve characters
and Mulan takes the role of the voice of reason. Therefore, it is evident in Mulan that
Disney’s depiction of its heroines has evolved into women of knowledge and
intelligence.
82
�Another aspect of the films where there is evidence of feminist progress is the
way in which the females escape from danger. In Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the
main character faces danger various times and each time she is saved by a male character.
It is the queen’s huntsman who first informs her of the queen’s evil plot, giving her time
to escape. It is the seven dwarfs who take her into their home from the woods and
ultimately cause the queen’s death. Finally, it is the prince who saves her from the
sleeping death. Jack Zipes addresses this notion as he discusses the early Disney
princesses: “The young women are helpless ornaments in need of protection, and when it
comes to the action of the film, they are omitted.” 18 This aspect of the movie helps create
the sexist representation of Snow White, because it implies that she is incapable of
surviving without the help of a man.
Again, The Little Mermaid has certain similar and dissimilar qualities to Snow
White. There are some parts of the story in which Ariel is brought to safety by a male.
After turning human, Ariel loses the ability to breath underwater. Her male friends,
Sebastian and Flounder, bring her safely to the surface. Later, when Ursula stakes her
claim on Ariel, Kind Triton sacrifices his own life to save that of his daughter. Also, it is
Eric who fatally stabs Ursula, saving Ariel from the whirlpool in which she is trapped.
O’Brien discusses this idea: “Once again Disney’s heroine survives to find happiness
thanks solely to the heroism and sacrifice of male characters.” 19
Therefore, it might seem as though in this movie Disney has not progressed
from the “damsel in distress” ideas resonating through Snow White, but further evidence
in the film proves contrary. Early in the movie an explosion occurs on Eric’s ship and he
is thrown unconscious into the ocean. Ariel swims to his rescue and carries him to shore.
With this action Ariel portrays bold and brave qualities and as a result, The Little
Mermaid shows evidence of the start of Disney’s movement away from the sexist notion
that woman is helpless without man. Perhaps it even suggests that at times man needs the
assistance of woman.
While The Little Mermaid may hint at this notion, Mulan is strongly engaged in
proving it. The plot of the movie is overloaded with instances in which Mulan assists
various men in the face of danger and helps them survive. First, when her injured father
is called to a war, in which he will undoubtedly perish, Mulan steals his armor and enrolls
in the family name, saving her father’s life. Then after joining the army, her troop is
attacked by a massive group of Huns. While the rest of China’s soldiers accept defeat
and their own death, Mulan uses quick wit and constructs a strategy to save their lives
and defeat the enemies. In the next moment, she saves her captain, her friends, and her
18
19
Jack Zipes, “Breaking the Disney Spell,” in From Mouse to Mermaid, 37.
O’Brien, 173.
83
�fellow soldiers from an avalanche. Then, as mentioned earlier, during a parade of
celebration, Mulan becomes aware of the Huns’ return and devises a plan to save the
emperor and his people. Once again she saves her captain and ultimately defeats the evil,
menacing foe, Shan-Yu. The magnificent heroism of Mulan is encapsulated in a single
sentence from the emperor: “You have saved us all.” 20 Interestingly, the various times
that Mulan saves the different characters, she uses not brutal strength or violence, but
instead her brilliant intelligence and cleverness. This seems perfectly suitable to
feminists’ guidelines of how a woman should be represented; that is as a person capable
of high intellect and ability.
One might argue that these aspects of the movie do not serve as proof that
Mulan was created in an image of feminism because she has posed as a male in order to
succeed. However, in the climactic scenes of the film, Mulan’s gender has already been
revealed. Furthermore, she receives recognition for all her acts after this revelation has
occurred. As all of China bows to their heroine, including the emperor and the soldiers,
they are aware that she is a woman. Thus, Mulan represents a character that took the path
necessary in order to succeed as a woman in her society.
Through the examination of these three movies, it has been argued that feminists
need not worry as much about the female representation their children will idolize as they
grow. Despite the original depictions of women in Disney films, Mulan has begun the
start of a new era of Disney movies. With her brilliance, her strength, and her
independence, she has paved the way for the future Disney princesses who can serve as
models for the modern woman of today’s society. In an article in The Washington Post,
Elizabeth Chang, a mother of a preschool aged daughter, discusses how she attempted to
keep her child away from the influence of Disney, until the release of Mulan.
Now I, who once downplayed Disney and refused to buy Ariel pajamas, am
happy to have my daughter identify with a Disney movie character -- one
who is brave, clever, capable, kind and respectful. A character who has
a realistic figure…and wears clothing that manages to cover all sensitive body parts. A
character more interested in fulfilling her own interests and abilities than in finding a
man. 21
In these words it is evident that Mulan will most likely serve as a role model for
the children of today and of the future. Furthermore, apparently she possesses the
qualities and attributes that any feminist, and perhaps any parent, would be proud to
recognize in their own child.
20
21
Mulan.
Elizabeth Chang, “Disney’s Character Flaws,” The Washington Post, 4 Oct. 1998.
84
�Works Cited
Bells, Elizabeth, and Lynda Haas, and Laura Sells, ed. From Mouse to Mermaid The
Politics of Film, Gender, and Culture. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana
University Press, 1995.
Chang, Elizabeth. “Disney’s Character Flaws.” The Washington Post 4 Oct. 1998: F01.
Henke, Jill Birnie, and Nancy J. Smith, and Diana Zimmerman Umble. “Construction of
The Female Self: Feminist Readings of the Disney Heroine.” Women’s Studies in
Communication 19 (1996): 229-247.
The Little Mermaid. Dir. John Musker and Ron Clements. Prod. Walt Disney and
Silver Screen Partners IV. Walt Disney Pictures. Buena Vista Picture Distributions,
1989.
Mulan. Dir. Barry Cook and Tony Bancroft. Prod. Walt Disney Productions. Walt
Disney Pictures. Buena Vista Picture Distributions, 1998.
O’Brien, Patricia Colby. “The Happiest Films on Earth: A Textual and Contextual
Analysis of Walt Disney’s Cinderella and The Little Mermaid.” Women’s Studies in
Communication 19 (1996): 169-183.
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Dir. David Hand, Perce Pearce, Larry Morey,
William Cottrell, Wilfred Jackson, and Ben Sharpsteen. Prod. Walt Disney Productions.
Walt Disney Pictures. Buena Vista Picture Distributions, 1937.
85
�Why Rules are Made to be Broken: The Establishment and
Destruction of the Institution in Harry Potter and the
Sorcerer’s Stone and Ender’s Shadow
Paula Casill1 (Accounting)
It is not uncommon for the heroes of a literary piece to struggle and fight, even
to the death, against the idea of the “institution.” The destruction of an institution is the
noblest cause that these heroes can further. It implies the dawn of a new age, the release
of the enslaved, the renewal of justice for the masses, and a resurgence of knowledge,
ideals, and values, all of which will inevitably lead towards a better and brighter
tomorrow. Indeed, this concept is so common that the very term “institution” has
developed strongly negative connotations. The institution in these pieces is traditionally
portrayed as an overtly ridged, hopelessly archaic, blatantly biased, and yet omnipotent
structure that must somehow be brought to its knees.
However, there are instances in literature in which the institution is not the
enemy, but rather a necessity in the furtherance of the cause of good. In such cases, the
institution is often used to train the hero in preparation for his quest against evil. Yet
even in this role, the institution is not necessarily free from traditional deconstruction.
Although the hero is not fighting against the institution in these stories, in order to prove
victorious he must inevitably break free of the strict controls and rules that it has imposed
on him, thus indicating that victory cannot be obtained within the institution’s structure.
An examination of two works of literature, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s
Stone by J. K. Rowling, and Ender’s Shadow by Orson Scott Card, gives us a clear
example of this concept. In both of these stories, the author erects a powerful institution
which serves three distinct purposes: to provide a training facility in which the elite learn
to combat evil, to teach the hero (as well as the reader) about the rules and social norms
of the elite culture he is entering, and finally, to provide the hero with a set of rules and
controls that he can break in order to fulfill his quest.
Before one can compare the roles of the institution in these two pieces of
literature, it is important to first define two generalized terms that are central to this
argument. The first term is “hero.” For this argument, “hero” is not defined in the grand
1
Research performed under the direction of Dr. Susan Bernardo (English)
86
�traditional sense, as the individual who leads the way towards ultimate victory, but rather
as the individual whose relationship with the institution is the most unique and atypical,
in other words, the person who gets to break the most rules. In Harry Potter, this
distinction is not necessary, since both definitions are reconciled in the title character.
However, in Ender’s Shadow the difference is important. Ender Wiggin is the character
who most closely resembles the traditional hero. However, it is the main character, Bean,
who successfully supersedes the traditional confines of the institution, an therefore, for
the purposes of this paper, plays the role of “hero.”
The second term, “institution,” can maintain a more traditional definition. For
the sake of this comparison, the institution can be loosely defined as a highly structured,
strictly controlled, and isolated environment designed to achieve a specific purpose or
further a specific goal. This rather broad definition could include any number of
traditional organizations from hospitals to government agencies; but conveniently, the
institutions in both Harry Potter and Ender’s Shadow are strikingly similar: they are both
highly specialized schools designed to train children with exceptional gifts.
In Harry Potter the institution is Hogwarts, a school in which magical children
learn to become witches and wizards. In Ender’s Shadow the institution is Battle School,
in which the best and brightest of Earth’s children are sent to learn the art of combat in
preparation for the upcoming war with the Buggers. There is a striking parallel between
the structures of these schools which allows for an easy comparison of their uses within
the two novels. It is therefore important to recognize the similarities between the schools
in order to better understand the roles they play within their respective stories.
First, both of these schools are extremely elitist. Only the best, brightest, or
most talented children on Earth are even considered for acceptance. Acceptance into
Hogwarts is based solely on the child’s level of magical talent. This means that having a
magical family is not enough to ensure acceptance, and that the lack of magical family
members does not mean automatic rejection. The characters of Hermione Granger and
Neville Longbottom provide the perfect example of this. Hermione, when first meeting
Harry, tells him “’Nobody in my family is magic at all, it was ever such a surprise when I
got my [acceptance] letter’” (Rowling, 105). Neville, on the other hand, who was raised
by his witch grandmother, admits that his family wasn’t convinced that he would be
accepted: “’they thought I might not be magic enough to come’” (125).
Battle School works in a similar fashion. Again, the school does not give
preferential treatment to children from certain social classes or families. It accepts only
children with the highest scores on their battery of exams. In fact, as Bean finds out once
he reaches Battle School: “everyone had such high scores on all the tests … that the
differences were almost trivial … most of the children clustered between 97 and 98
percent” (Card, 189).
87
�Adding to the elitist attitude is the fact that in neither school do children apply
for acceptance. Children do not find these schools, the schools find them. In fact, in both
stories, the heroes knew nothing about the schools until after they were already singled
out. Despite the fact that “his name’s been down ever since he was born”, Harry Potter
had never heard of Hogwarts until he received his letter of acceptance (Rowling, 58). In
Ender’s Shadow, Sister Carlotta was on a constant quest to find potential Battle School
students among the dregs of society. She found Bean and tested him without telling him
why. It was not until he was already in the process of being tested that Bean was
informed about what the tests were for. It was at this point that he learned about Battle
School (Card, 50).
Another way in which these institutions are similar is that in both schools there
is a heavy emphasis on splintering the students into smaller groups, which then constantly
compete with each other. This internal structure of forced competition becomes central
to the lives of the students, while at the same time, forcing them to strive towards
excellence at all times.
At Hogwarts, children are immediately separated into one of four houses. Each
house has its own dorm, its own colors, and its own symbol. The members of the house
take classes together, eat at their own table, socialize among themselves, and make
friends primarily with other members of their own house. They compete throughout the
year for house points, and the house with the most points at the end of the year receives
the coveted house cup (Rowling, 114). Points can be eared or lost for any exceptional or
inappropriate behavior, but the majority of a house’s points come from the game of
Qudditch, in which the winning team receives a minimum of 150 points (169). Each
house has a team, and they compete against each other during the school year. For
students at Hogwarts, the competition, and therefore the game, is central to their
experiences at the school.
This emphasis on teams and competition is even more pronounced in Battle
School. Once the students of Battle School reach a certain age they are divided into
armies, each comprised of 40 soldiers and a commander. There are many more armies in
Battle School than houses in Hogwarts. However, they have strikingly similar functions.
Just as with the Hogwarts houses, each army has its own color combinations, its own
animal symbol, and its own barracks. Members of each army exercise, train, learn, and
socialize as a group. Students in these armies also compete for points on both an
individual and army-wide basis. However, unlike Hogwarts, the only way to win points
in Battle School is during a battle with another army. In this way Battle School takes the
emphasis on competition to a higher level.
At Hogwarts, there are ways to earn and lose points outside of the main
competition (Quidditch). As a result, students are encouraged to be on their best behavior
88
�and to try hard at all times, not just on the playing field. At Battle School, on the other
hand, the game is the only real form of competition. Higher grades no not affect the
standings, and neither does misbehavior. The game is everything; it is the core of student
life at Battle School. Normal education, grades, and even social behavior are secondary
to this main focus.
The reason behind the elitism and the emphasis on competition in both of these
institutions is the same. In both of their realities there exists a powerful evil force that
must be overcome, and in neither case can the institutions take a neutral stance
concerning this evil. Both schools are, in fact, training students specifically to combat it,
and are therefore clearly on the side of good. The exclusivity of the schools ensures that
they are training the students in their worlds that have the greatest potential, and the
heavy emphasis on competition provides the incentive for this potential to be fully
realized. Thus the first role of the institution within these stories is to provide an elite
group of students with the training they will need to combat the evils that they will face
in the future.
In the world of magic, of which Hogwarts is a part, there are some wizards who,
in their search for power, turn to the Dark Side (Rowling, 54). These dark wizards are
the evil against which Hogwarts trains its students to fight. Of course, education, not
combat, is touted as the primary purpose of the school. Hogwarts is, first and foremost,
an institution for the education of wizards. However, from their first year students are
required to take classes in defense against the dark arts (70). Furthermore, it is clearly the
attitude of the school that the worst thing a wizard can do is turn to the Dark Side.
Students at Hogwarts are taught with the presumption that they will use their powers for
good, and to that end the school “seeks to provide its students not only with knowledge
but also with a moral education” (Nel, 28).
Therefore, although training students specifically to fight against dark wizards
does not appear to be the primary purpose of the school, everything that the students learn
about becoming a wizard is a key part of that training. It therefore makes sense that the
competition between houses is extended beyond the Quidditch arena to include all areas
of student life. The students must excel in all areas of wizardry in order to stand up to the
forces of evil.
In Battle School, on the other hand, the goal of training students to combat evil
is clearly stated to be the primary objective of the institution, as opposed to an unspoken
underlying purpose. The evil that this institution is poised against is the Buggers, a
hostile and dangerous alien race that had nearly wiped out humanity when it first came to
conquer Earth generations before (Card, 50). Although they were defeated once, there is
no question that the Buggers will come back again and that another war will ensue.
Battle School was originally designed to find and train the best of Earth’s young military
89
�minds in preparation for this war. Thus the institution clearly positions itself to aid the
heroes on the side of good (humanity) against the evil of an invading alien race.
Therefore, unlike Hogwarts, Battle School considers the game to be more
important than a traditional education. Although what students learn in the purely
academic part of the school is certainly helpful, it is not as important as the tactical
training that they receive through the battles. Battle School is designed to train brilliant
commanders, not scientists, technicians, or theorists. It is logical, therefore, for the
school to place all of the competitive emphasis on the battle room as opposed to the
classroom.
The parallels between the schools’ structures and goals do not end there,
however. There is another way in which the institutions in Harry Potter and Ender’s
Game are the same. Both of these schools are isolated and far removed from every other
form of society. And it is important to note that this removal is not only from normal
everyday society, but also from the elite social spheres which the children are training to
enter.
Hogwarts is located in an unknown magical corner of England that is only
accessible by the train that leaves King’s Cross station form platform 9 ¾ (Rowling, 89).
This platform, and therefore all access to Hogwarts, is the privileged information of the
magical community, and no non-magical person (who wouldn’t know the secret entrance
to the platform) is able to travel to the school. However, even though people within the
world of magic know the location of the school, or at least how to get there, there are no
outside visitors during the school year. Students are able to communicate with their
families through letters sent by owls, and it is possible to leave the school, as
Dumbledore, the headmaster, does at the end of the book (267). However, the school is
otherwise totally isolated from both outside worlds.
Battle School is also isolated from all other forms of society. The school is
located on a space station, which removes it not only from society, but from Earth itself
(Card, 50). The only way to get to the station is a shuttle flight, which is controlled by
the International Fleet. Although the Fleet has access to the station, the only traveling
done is the transportation of students. Visitors are unheard of. The isolation of battle
School exceeds that of Hogwarts because almost all communication between students
and their loved ones on Earth is cut off as well. Although the students are encouraged to
write letters to their families, it is rare that these letters are actually sent home (139).
It is important to note that although both of these institutions are removed from
the elite cultural spheres that the students are training to enter, they are still very much a
part of those spheres. They operate by the same codes of conduct and the same unwritten
norms as the groups that they represent. These codes are different from normal society’s
90
�codes. However, because in the real world these groups are intermingled with normal
society on a day-to-day basis, discovering and learning these rules is a complex process.
Therefore removing the institutions from all other forms of society allows the
unique groups that they represent to be studied in isolation. Furthermore, because, as
institutions, they are highly structured and strictly controlled, many of the rules that are
unwritten in their cultures are codified within the schools, which makes examination even
easier. Thus the second role that the institution plays in these stories is to introduce both
the hero and the reader to a larger cultural structure which would be nearly impossible to
examine otherwise.
In each of these stories the institution forms a microcosm in which the larger
social elite can be studied. In Harry Potter, Hogwarts represents the world of magic,
while in Ender’s Shadow, the school represents the International Fleet, the main military
power on Earth. Neither of the social spheres actually exists for the modern-day reader,
nor do they directly resemble any current social niches. The author must therefore
introduce these cultures to their readers, explain how they work, and demonstrate how
they differ from traditional social groups.
Both Rowling and Card use the hero’s arrival in the institution to realize this
goal. In both stories the main characters have no prior knowledge of or interaction with
these new cultural niches before their acceptance into the schools. Furthermore, they are
first introduced to these institutions at the same time as the reader. This is important,
because it allows the author to teach the reader about these new cultures indirectly. As
the hero inevitably learns the rules, both written and unwritten, of the school (and
therefore the larger social structure), the reader is able to learn with him.
In Harry Potter, for instance, the reader learns along with Harry as he is
educated in everything magical from the history of Voldemort, his arch nemesis, to
wands and what they’re made of, to the rules of Qudditch, to the way a wizard’s duel
works. Everything about this new world of magic must be explained to him, and the
reader is therefore informed about things that members of the magical community are
expected to know and understand.
Similarly, in Ender’s Shadow, Bean arrives at Battle School knowing even less
than the other launchies. He must learn how movement in space works, what the chain of
command is, and even the military terms and ranks used on the station, such as calling the
teams armies and their leaders commanders. Again, the reader’s ignorance is reflected in
the hero himself, and as the hero learns the reader is given the information as well.
It is important to note here that the heroes of these stories are not normal
students, even as normality is defined within these institutions. As was mentioned
earlier, both Hogwarts and Battle School admit only a highly specialized elite group of
students. However, even among these elite, the heroes of these stories are exceptional
91
�individuals. In Harry Potter, Harry had, as a mere baby, survived a direct encounter with
the evil wizard Voldemort, indicating that he was destined to become a great wizard
(Rowling, 50). In fact, his name was already legendary long before he arrived at
Hogwarts. In Ender’s Shadow, Bean scored much higher on every test of intelligence
given to him than any other student in the history of the school (Card, 189). Considering
the students to which he was being compared, this was no small feat.
Both of these boys have a potential that far exceeds what their schools are
prepared to handle. However, those in charge of these institutions recognize that the
greater good, namely success in the battle against evil, is much more important than the
rules of the institution, and that “the most important achievements have little to do with
rules” (McVeigh, 202). They are therefore willing to allow the bending, and even
breaking of these rules under certain circumstances. In fact, knowing which rules to
break and when becomes an important lesson for the heroes to learn. The final role of the
institution in these stories, therefore, is to provide a structured set of rules and regulations
which the hero can break in preparation for his confrontation with evil.
In fact, the normal rules of the schools begin to break almost immediately upon
the heroes’ arrivals. They are treated differently by the adults in their institutions from
the very beginning, and when they do break the rules themselves, they find that their
punishments are either non-traditional or even non-existent. In both of these stories
“rules are important, but not ultimate … to break a rule … is both a reflection of real life
and a part of growing and learning” (202).
For Harry Potter, the rule breaking begins as soon as he meets Hagrid, who uses
magic on Harry’s behalf even though he isn’t permitted to (Rowling, 59). The rule
breaking continues at Hogwarts during the sorting ceremony, where Harry interferes with
the sorting hat’s choice of which house to place him in (121). Harry’s first act of direct
disobedience takes place during his first flying class, when he disobeys a specific order
against flying in order to recover Neville’s rememberall from Malfoy (149). Interestingly
enough, however, Harry was not punished for this blatant infraction of the rules, but
rewarded by being placed on the house Quidditch team (151).
From this point onward, Harry breaks the rules of the school on a regular basis.
He sneaks out of the dorms after hours, goes to forbidden sections of the library, and even
handles an illegal dragon. And although he is occasionally caught and punished with the
removal of house points, his punishments are never as severe as the situation warrants. In
fact, the most serious punishment he faces, detention with Filch, turns into an adventure
with Hagrid in the otherwise forbidden forest (249). For Harry, the punishment for
breaking a rule is in fact the opportunity to break another rule.
For Bean, the rules are broken for the first time on the shuttle when Dimak
informs the other students that Bean had scored higher than them on most of the tests
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�they’d taken (Card, 89). Normally student scores are kept strictly secret. Bean breaks the
rules on his own for the first time later that day when he explores the station rather than
going directly back to his dorm, and learns how to sneak through the ventilation system
(113). Soon thereafter, Bean creates a secondary student ID and password, which the
teachers know about but let him keep (123).
From that point on Bean begins to break the rules on a continual basis. He steals
Nikoli’s password, sneaks through the ventilation system spying on teachers, steals a
teacher’s ID and password, and eventually creates a fake teacher’s ID to give himself
unrestricted access to confidential information. The teachers are aware of most of these
infractions. However, the result is not punishment, but the assignment of tasks usually
given to teachers, such as the formation of an army for Ender to command (217).
The extent to which the normal rules of the institution are ignored for the heroes
is extreme. However, it must be recognized that both the heroes and the institutions are
in extreme positions. In both stories, the heroes are capable of feats that even the
teachers cannot perform. Harry Potter is the only wizard who has come face to face with
Voldemort and survived (Rowling, 55). His task is to face Voldemort again and protect
the Sorcerer’s Stone. Bean’s intelligence is so high that even with only the tiniest bits of
information he can piece together the big picture and make more intelligent decisions that
the greatest military minds alive (Card, 211). His task, although he does not know it at
first, is to aid Ender Wiggin in his preparation and training for the final war against the
Buggers.
Therefore, when the heroes break the rules of their institutions it is because they
need to. Both heroes are attempting to fulfill their destiny, to do their part in the battle
against evil. In order to do that, they need special information, and in order to get that
information they must remove themselves from the traditional role of student. This is
reflected, in part, by their rapid advancement through the normal schooling system.
Harry is they youngest Quidditch team player at Hogwarts in over 100 years (Rowling,
152). Bean is promoted through all of his regular classes at an alarming rate, is one of the
youngest members of an army in Battle School history, and becomes the commander of
his own army at the tender age of six (Card, 348).
However, even this special treatment is not enough to give the heroes what they
need. To be successful in their quests, both boys require information that is simply not
available to students within the institutional system. They therefore spend a lot of time
and energy attempting to acquire this information, and in so doing, break the rules that
were designed to keep the information private. For Harry this means sneaking around the
school after hours and going places that he does not belong. For Bean it means
tampering with the school’s computer in order to access privileged confidential
information.
93
�It is important to note here that although the heroes have begun at this point to
remove themselves from their roles within the institutions, they could not have done so
without help from someone in a position of power. Both heroes were helped along in
their quests by the most powerful men in their institutions. Much of Harry’s
investigation, and most especially his final journey to the trap door, was made possible
because of a cloak of invisibility that was given to him anonymously (Rowling, 202).
After his ordeal is over, Harry learns that the anonymous donor was in fact Dumbledore,
the school’s headmaster (299). The head of Battle School, Colonel Graff, is also aware
of Bean’s unauthorized activity, and allows it to continue through most of his time at
battle school. Graff even uses him to further the school’s (and Bean’s) goal of preparing
Ender for leadership as quickly as possible (Card, 215).
There is a definite connection between the heroes and the leaders of the
institutions that lies outside of the usual student-teacher relationship. As the hero in each
story begins to break down the rules of the institution, the man in charge of maintaining
the institution allows, and even aids the process. It is therefore fair to argue that “the
novels view official systems of power skeptically, placing greater faith in unofficial
alliances” (Nel, 39). For although the hero is forced to rebel against the rules of the
institution, he receives help from the people who should, logically, be trying to stop him.
The total deconstruction of the institution in the mind of the hero occurs late in
each story as the hero recognizes that the institution’s purpose has become obsolete.
Both schools work towards training students to combat evil, but once the time comes for
the actual confrontation, there is no longer any reason to maintain the training structure,
and the institution therefore becomes meaningless. In Harry Potter, Harry realizes this
just before he sets off to confront Voldemort. When his friends tell him he’ll be expelled
for leaving the dorms he responds “’There won’t be any Hogwarts to get expelled from!
… Losing points doesn’t matter any more, can’t you see? D’you think he’ll leave you
and your families alone if Gryffindor wins the house cup?’” (Rowling, 270). In Ender’s
Shadow, Bean comes to this realization after Ender is transferred out of Battle School.
He makes a speech to the rest of the army commanders suggesting that they ignore the
standings of the armies from that point on. He reminds them that “‘we’re not each
other’s enemies. The Buggers are the only enemy … that [score] board up there, that’s
the teachers’ game, getting us to turn on each other’” (Card, 362). When each of the
heroes realizes that the existence of the institution is no longer necessary for him to
complete his task, the institution loses its power. The final role of the institution, its
deconstruction, is thus completed.
In both Harry Potter and Ender’s Shadow the institution plays three vital roles.
First, it creates an environment in which an elite group of students, including the story’s
hero, can receive the training they need in order to defeat an evil force. Second, it
94
�provides the hero, as well as the reader, with an isolated environment in which aspects of
this new elite society, including its rules and regulations, may be observed and studied.
Finally, it provides the hero with an organized structure against which he can rebel in
pursuit of his ultimate quest.
Because the hero in each of these stories is uniquely gifted, there is no
institution that can fully prepare him or provide him with the information he needs in
order to play his role in the overall fight against evil. However, by circumventing the
normal course of action for students – by breaking the rules and thus breaking down the
institution – the hero is able to obtain the information he needs to complete his task.
Thus although the institution is working on the side of good, its deconstruction becomes
just as necessary at the end of the tale as was its establishment at the beginning.
Works Cited
Card, Orson Scott. Ender’s Shadow. New York: Tom Doherty Associated, 1999.
McVeigh, Dan. “Is Harry Potter Christian?”. Renascence. Spring 2002: 197-209.
Nel, Philip. J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter Novels. New York: Continuum, 2001.
Rowling, J. K. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. New York: Scholastic, 1997.
95
�
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Wagner College Forum for Undergraduate Research
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The <em>Wagner College Forum for Undergraduate Research</em> provides an arena where students can publish their research and have a wider audience that can see what types of areas of academic intellect and expertise are being explored at Wagner College. The journal is devoted to publishing empirical and theoretical papers by undergraduate students in all disciplines. Papers are reviewed with respect to their scholarly merit. Length and type of articles have been determined by the paper’s objectives and scope of contribution to its respective field. This collection houses all issues of the <em>Forum</em> from 2002 to the present.
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Wagner College, Staten Island, N.Y.
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Forum for Undergraduate Research
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
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Fall 2003
Description
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Volume 2, Number 1
Table Of Contents
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Section I: Eastern Colleges Science Conference -- Abstracts -- 2 Redefining Love: The Interrelations Between Love, Attachment Styles and the Triangular Theory of Romantic Relationships / Jaime T. Carreno -- 2 Deep Aquifer Water as Alternate Drinking Water Source in Arsenic Affected Area of Bangladesh / Margaret Fiasconaro, Sarah Alauddin and Dr. Mohammad Alauddin -- 3 Aircraft Icing: An Experimental Study / Nicolas Rada and Dr. Gregory J. Falabella -- 3 Effect of Complexing Agent on TIO2 Hydrothermal Crystal Growth / Dawn Pothier and Dr. Maria C. Gelabert -- 4 The Effect of Fat Content Label on Food Intake / Joanna Ferreri and Dr. Laurence J. Nolan -- 4 Ion Chromatography Analysis of Deep Aquifer Water from Arsenic Affected Areas of Bangladesh / Sarah Alauddin, Margaret Fiasconaro and Dr. Mohammad Alauddin -- 5 Transcardial Perfusion of Zebrafish Brain / Matthew W. Gray, Adam James, Prof. Linda Raths and Dr. Zoltan L. Fulop -- 5 Hydrothermal Crystal Growth of Zinc Oxide Via Coordination Chemistry / Dana M. Romano and Dr. Maria C. Gelabert -- 6 Pluto: Captured Comet or Legitimate Planet / Michelle Bingham and Dr. Gregory J. Falabella -- 6 Validation of the Folk Remedy Garlic (Allium Sativum) in Wound Healing / Katherine LaChance, Christopher Hart and Dr. Ellen Perry -- 6 The Relationship Between Teachers’ Physical Attractiveness and Student Ratings of Their Effectiveness / Kerri Doran -- 7 An Experimental Study of Shoaling Behavior In ZebraFish (Danio Rerio) / Janette Lebron, Dr. Brian G. Palestis and Dr. Zoltan Fulop / 7 Physiological Responses to Guided Relaxation / Teresa Jackson, Carolyn Palinkas, Robert Liberto, ParamPreet Ghuman, Dr. Zohreh Shahvar and Dr. Zoltan Fulop -- 8 Alcohol-Induced Malformations in Zebrafish Embryos: Zebrafish as a Model Animal to Study Fetal Alcohol Syndrome / Jacqueline Whittenburg and Renee Sudol -- Section II: The Sciences -- Full Length Papers -- 10 Investigation of Iron (III)-based MRI Contrast Agents / Maryanne Gaul -- 20 Pluto: Captured Comet or Legitimate Planet? / Michelle Bingham -- 26 Autism and the MMR Vaccination / Stephanie Capasso -- Section III: The Social Sciences -- Full Length Papers -- 36 The Effects of Conscious Sedation on Anxiety in Oral Surgery Patients / Dina Gramegna -- 43 Redefining Love: The Interrelations between Love, Attachment Styles and the Triangular Theory of Romantic Relationships / Jaime T. Carreno -- 53 Memory: Effects of One’s Gender on Memory Retention / Nicole Gaeta -- 59 GPA and Study Habits: The Relationship between Study-Habits and Grade Point Average in College Students / Jenny Ludvigsen -- Section IV: Critical Essays -- Full Length Papers -- 68 Van Gogh and Gauguin / Kimberly Kopko -- 76 Housewife to an Empowered War Hero: The Feministic Transformation of the Disney Princesses / Kimberly Litto -- 86 Why Rules are Made to be Broken: The Establishment and Destruction of the Institution in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone and Ender’s Shadow / Paula Casill
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101 pages
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