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Effects of Age on Second
Language Acquisition and
Evidence of a Critical Period
Edward Pollock
Bachelor of Science in Biopsychology
Class of 2021
�Second Language Acquisition
• Current paradigm
• Structured, classroom lessons
• Non-immersion
• Wide range of starting ages
• But perhaps this should change
�Critical Period Hypothesis
• Period of heightened language learning abilities
• Exact underlying mechanisms are debated
• Quite evident for first language
• Role in second language acquisition debated
• Based on basic observation in language acquisition: younger is better
�Critical Period Hypothesis: Key History
• “Ideal period” first hypothesized
• Penfield & Roberts, 1959
• “Critical period” term coined and hypothesis popularized
• Lenneberg, 1967
• Adults observed to pick up second language quicker early on, potentially
suggesting a period limited to first language
• Asher & Price, 1967; Collier, 1987; Snow & Hoefnagel-Höhle, 1978
• Research finds classification error rate ranging from 5% to 40% in existing
research, potentially necessitating re-analysis of previous findings
• Vanhove, 2020
�Critical Period Explanations Over Time
• Brain not yet stiff and rigid; neural “switch” mechanism
• Penfield & Roberts, 1959
• Integration of use and play allows children to learn better due to stimulating
both hemispheres (learning settings)
• Asher & Price, 1967; Asher & Garcia, 1969; Munoz, 2008
• Biological predisposition; imprinting theory, brain plasticity
• Asher & Garcia, 1969; Birdsong, 2005a
• “Talented language learners”
• Ioup, et al., 1994
�Issues Plaguing Research
• Methodology
• Pronunciation as measure of attainment
• Inherently biased
• Poor metric to measure comprehension
• Metrics ‘replacing’ pronunciation often very similar or tied to pronunciation
• Pronunciation and similar metrics used even in 21st century
�Issues Plaguing Research cont.
• Monolingual Yardstick
• Nativelikeness as the goal of second language acquisition
• Unfair to hold bilinguals to same standards as native monolinguals
• Not typically the goal of the learner
• Bilingual ability should be measured against an ‘expert’ or ‘fluent’ bilingual
• Subjectivity
• Recording of subjective metrics will be inherently biased against non-native speakers
• Might justify re-analysis of much of the existing research to account for miss-rate
�Psycholinguistic Perspective
• Adults and older children begin learning faster in formal instruction
• Limited to first few months, after which younger children eclipse
• Critical period applicable to certain domains of language acquisition
• Spontaneous performance, ability to recognize regional accents, knowledge of abstract
syntactic structures
• Mainly morphosyntax, grammar to a lesser extent
• Language learning setting and manner play key role in severity of critical
period effects
• Non-immersion (formal, instructed, classroom) vs immersion (informal, more passive,
typically act/see what they say)
�Psycholinguistic Perspective cont.
• Critical period timeframe dependent on language-learning setting
• Immersion: Little to no decline until near teen years, age 10-12 typically
• Non-immersion: Little to no decline until age nine
• Less dramatic but longer lasting decline in abilities than previously
hypothesized
• Sharper decline beginning around age 17
• End of ability for ultimate acquisition or native-like syntax
�Neurological Perspective
• Critical period ending around 17 likely due to closure of a larger period of
increased performance in behavioral domains
• Development of supporting neural ‘hardware’
• Brain develops networks to support language, which become more solid [and
as a result, lose elasticity] as we age
• Networks must be stimulated early
• Absence of a first language makes acquisition of first and subsequent language more
difficult later on in life
�Brain Differences
• PET, EEG, fMRI, and qMRI scans uncover neurological differences in learners
across age ranges
• Early multilinguals process language homogenously across the brain
• Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas activated in different patterns
• Microstuctural variations in left inferior frontal region and left fusiform gyrus
• Early passive L2 exposure results in similar levels of variance as actively being
raised bilingual
�Neuropsychological Models
• Interactive Specialization Model
• Specialized regions become more specialized and interconnected over time, thereby
losing plasticity
• Neuroemergentism Model
• Developmental change of specialized regions and networks is not isolated to one region
or skill
• Interference Model
• Second language acquisition ability restrained or stunted by continued use and
development of first language
�Observations
• Experience tutoring English to non-native speakers
• Observed expected language acquisition observations
• Observed rapid language acquisition when multilingualism established from a
young age
• More integrated language processing network
• Greater difficulty reported with English since pandemic began
• Less time outside home à less usage
• Comprehension improved drastically
• Pronunciation ≠ Comprehension
�Language Learning of the Future
• Research suggests we need change in the second language education
paradigm
• Standardize a young starting age
• Begin instruction within first few school years
• Language foundation before age ten
• Promote immersion learning
• Separate classroom where only target language is spoken/displayed
• Assessments based on use and comprehension, not repetition
�References
Asher, J. J., & García, R. (1969). The optimal age to learn a foreign language. The Modern
Language Journal, 53(5), 334–341. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15404781.1969.tb04603.x
Asher, J. J., & Price, B. S. (1967). The learning strategy of the total physical response: Some
age differences. Child Development, 38, 1219–1227.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1127119
Birdsong, D. (2005a). Interpreting age effects in second language acquisition. In J. F. Kroll &
A. M. B. de Groot (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches. (pp.
109–127). Oxford University Press.
Birdsong, D. (2005b). Nativelikeness and non-nativelikeness in L2A research. International
Review of Applied Linguistics 43 (4): 319–328.
https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.2005.43.4.319
Birdsong, D., & Molis, M. (2001). On the evidence for maturational constraints in secondlanguage acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 235-239.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2000.2750
Bloch, C., Kaiser, A., Kuenzli, E., Zappatore, D., Haller, S., Franceschini, R., Luedi, G., Radue,
E.-W., & Nitsch, C. (2009). The age of second language acquisition determines the
variability in activation elicited by narration in three languages in Broca’s and
Wernicke’s area. Neuropsychologia, 47(3), 625–633.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.11.009
Collier, V. P. (1987). Age and rate of acquisition of second language for academic purposes.
TESOL Quarterly, 21, 617–641. https://doi.org/10.2307/3586986
Dimroth, C. (2008). Perspectives on second language acquisition at different ages. In J. Philp,
R. Oliver, & A. Mackey (Eds.), Second language acquisition and the younger learner:
Child’s play? (Vol. 23, pp. 53–79). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.23.05dim
�References cont.
Flege, J. E., Yeni-Komshian, G. H., & Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second-language
acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 41(1), 78–104.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.1999.2638
Gürsoy, E. (2011). The critical period hypothesis revisited: The implications for current
foreign language teaching to young learners. Journal of Language Teaching &
Research, 2, 757-762. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.2.4.757-762
Hartshorne, J. K., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Pinker, S. (2018). A critical period for second language
acquisition: Evidence from 2/3 million English speakers. Cognition, 177, 263–277.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.04.007
Hernandez, A. E., Bodet, J. P., Gehm, K., & Shen, S. (2021). What does a critical period for
second language acquisition mean?: Reflections on Hartshorne et al. (2018).
Cognition, 206, 104478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104478
Ioup, G., Boustagui, E., El Tigi, M., & Moselle, M. (1994). Reexamining the critical period
hypothesis: A case study of successful adult SLA in a naturalistic environment.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 73–98.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100012596
Lenneberg, E. B. (1967). Biological foundations of language. International Journal of
American Linguistics, 35, 75-81. https://doi.org/10.1080/21548331.1967.11707799
Luo, D., Kwok, V. P. Y., Liu, Q., Li, W., Yang, Y., Zhou, K., Xu, M., Gao, J.-H., & Tan, L. H.
(2019). Microstructural plasticity in the bilingual brain. Brain and Language, 196.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2019.104654
Mayberry, R. I., & Lock, E. (2003). Age constraints on first versus second language
acquisition: Evidence for linguistic plasticity and epigenesis. Brain and Language,
87(3), 369–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00137-8
�References cont.
Munoz, C. (2008). Age-related differences in foreign language learning. Revisiting the
Empirical Evidence. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching
(IRAL), 46(3), 197–220. https://doi.org/10.1515/IRAL.2008.009
Newport, E. L. (2018). Is there a critical period for L1 but not L2? Bilingualism: Language and
Cognition, 21(5), 928–929. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918000305
Nicoladis, E., Montanari, S., Birdsong, D., & Vanhove, J. (2016). Age of second-language
acquisition: critical periods and social concerns. In Bilingualism across the lifespan:
factors moderating language proficiency (pp. 163–181). American Psychological
Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14939-010
Norrman, G., & Bylund, E. (2015). The irreversibility of sensitive period effects in language
development: evidence from second language acquisition in international adoptees.
Developmental Science, 19(3), 513–520. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12332
Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). Speech and Brain Mechanisms.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1960.tb05163.x
Snow, C. E., & Hoefnagel-Höhle, M. (1978). The critical period for language acquisition:
Evidence from second language learning. Child Development, 49, 1114–1128.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1128751
Steinhauser, K. (2014). Event-related potentials (ERPs) in second language research: A brief
introduction to the technique, a selected review, and an invitation to reconsider
critical periods in L2. Applied Linguistics, 35(4), 393–417.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amu028
Vanhove, J. (2020). When labeling L2 users as nativelike or not, consider classification
errors. Second Language Research, 36(4), 709–724.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658319827055
�
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Senior Presentations Archive
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This archive contains materials from Wagner’s annual ‘Senior Presentations.’ This event honors outstanding students from each discipline who completed their Senior Learning Community project with excellence. The work is representative of Wagner’s highest standards, and is exemplary of the diversity of subject matter, public-facing scholarship, and civic-minded professionalism our students have attained through their four years here. These students were specially invited to present their work in a formal setting, traditionally the day of Baccalaureate. Students are encouraged to present their work in a format appropriate for their discipline, and so, the presentations vary in their format. Some might be in the form of a short video, or paper abstracts, while others might be posters or music clips. We expect this archive to serve as a resource for generations to come. Congratulations to our Seniors!
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Effects of Age on Second Language Acquisition and Evidence of a Critical Period
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Psychology and Biological Sciences
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17 slides
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Biology
Biopsychology
Psychology
-
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928f52988cf8effa66b4eed2dc6dff5d
PDF Text
Text
Analysis of the Function of Small
Intestinal Aggregates of the
Necturus Based on Old Classical
and Recent Literature Data
K AELIN WO LF
�Objectives
§To analyze classical literature surrounding the possible functions of the cellular aggregates found
in the small intestine of the Necturus
§To understand how the limitations of the scientific technology of the period may have led to
inconclusive or incorrect conclusions
§To understand modern scientific techniques that could now be used to assist in answering this
question
§To use the information gained from these modern techniques regarding related species to to
perform a comparative analysis to reach a possible conclusion
�The Necturus
§Also known as the mudpuppy, is an amphibious animal related to frogs
§Historically an important model organisms for labs, but is now protected due to population
decline
§ Were vertebrate organisms that were cheap to maintain and had few regulations in place regarding
their treatment
§ Has led to a great body of work surrounding them that can no longer be explored directly
§One classic argument that was never resolved was whether the cellular aggregates seen in
histological preparations of their intestines are glandular or proliferative in function
�Cellular Aggregates
§The structures in question appear to extend from the mucosa of the intestine
§Tend to sit along the invaginated folds of the intestine
§If glandular- They should have a luminal surface and space to hold a product, as well as a duct to
the intestinal lumen through which to secrete their product
§If proliferative- They should have a higher rate of mitosis than the surrounding tissue (measured
by mitotic index), and there should be movement of new cells out of aggregate and into mucosa
§ Cells populating the aggregate should be stem cells
§In the drawing, the aggregates are labelled “b”
(Figure taken from Kingsbury, 1894).
�Stem Cells
§Undifferentiated cells that can mature into multiple types of mature cells based on the signaling
pathways they interact with
§Main classifications
§ Multipotent- Able to differentiate into several different types of mature cells
§ Pluripotent- Able to different into differentiate into any of the cell types that make up the body
§ Totipotent- Able to different into differentiate into any of the cell types that make up the body, plus
extraembryonic or placental, cells
§Function to develop tissue types in growing organisms and maintain cell populations in
developed tissues (process known as proliferation)
§ Stem cells can divide and differentiate only a portion of the daughter cells, thus maintaining the reserve
of stem cells and creating new cells to replace the cells in the tissue that have died
�Problems Identifying SC
§Individual cells are morphologically similar to many other cell types
§Groups of different types of stems cells don’t exhibit a rigid standard morphology
§Many differentiated cells are identified by a particular function of biological pathway they
participate in
§ Because their function is to become these other cells, stem cells don’t yet display these easily
identifiable markers
�Classical Literature
§Argue glandular function
§ Hoffman (1878)- Claimed his preparations showed glandular lumen
§ Kingsbury (1894)- Claimed his preparations showed glandular lumen
§ Bates (1904)- Argued other similar species had been shown to have intestinal glands
§Argue proliferative function
§ Mead (1916), Patton (1960), and Nicholas (1894)
§ Collectively argue that their preparations lack evidence of lumen or ducts
§ Also note that the aggregate has a much higher mitotic index than the rest of the
intestinal mucosa
§Argue dual function
§ Sarcedotti (1894), Dawson (1927), Goldsmith (1929), and Bizzozero (1982)
§ Argue that the aggregates switch back and form between the two functions based on
the needs of the intestine
§ Seek to appease the fact that both sides seem to be making valid and reputable
arguments
(Figure taken from Dawson, 1927).
�Classic Techniques
§H&E (Hematoxylin & eosin)§ Hematoxylin- Basic stain with a positive that stains nucleic acids a
dark purple/blue due to its interaction with the negative phosphate
backbone
§ Eosin- Acidic stain with a negative charge that stains the cytoplasmic
proteins pink since cytoplasmic proteins tend to be basic
§ High degree of detail and clarity, allows for calculation of mitotic
index
(Figure taken from Aghaallaei et al., 2016).
§Mallory’s trichrome complex§ Aniline blue- Stains collagen a deep blue color
§ Acid fuchsin- Stains cytoplasm and nuclei red
§ Orange G.- Stains red blood cells orange
(Figure taken from Ahmed et al., 2015).
�Limitations
§Could not detect signaling pathways or genetic expression
§Resolution much lower than techniques that exist today
§Before modern imaging preparations had to be hand drawn to show others
§Improvements in instruments, chemicals, and procedures create preparations with fewer
artefacts
§ Artefact- An artificial structure or tissue alteration seen on a histological preparation resulting from the
preparation process
�New Techniques
§Karnovsky’s fixative
§ Developed 1965 to fix tissue for use in electron microscopy
§ Preserves the morphological and chemical integrity of the tissue using both formaldehyde and
glutaraldehyde as embalming chemicals
§ Formaldehyde is smaller and is able to permeate the tissue faster and create a weaker hold to keep the
tissue in place
§ The larger glutaraldehyde molecule diffuse more slowly, but create a stronger fixation
§ Work by crosslinking polymers to each other via ionic and covalent bonding
§ Preserves microtubules especially well, which is critical for determining a mitotic index
§Embedding in Durcupan
§ Unlike its predecessor, paraffin, it doesn’t require an organic solvent that can negatively affect the
integrity of the tissue
�New Techniques
§BrDU (5-Bromo-2-deoxyuridine)
§ BrDU acts as a thymidine analog, that when injected, will be incorporated into the DNA of cells
undergoing DNA synthesis for division
§ The BrDU can then be visualized with antibodies and fluorescent microscopy
§ Will show not only which cells were dividing, but also the lineage of dividing cells if left in the tissue for
multiple generations of cell division
§Signaling markers
§ Discovered by studying the crypts of Lieberkühn in mice, which are intestinal aggregates with confirmed
stem cell function
§ Four main signaling cascades have been identified as different between stem cells and mature epithelial
cells- WnT, Notch, Indian Hedgehog (Ihh), and BMP
§ Are highly conserved pathways, that if shown to operate in Necturus aggregates, would be evidence in
favor of their function being proliferative
�New Techniques
§Gene expression markers
§ Similar to signaling cascades, there have been several genes whose
activity has been linked with stem cell function
§ Lgr5, Bmi, DCAMKL-1, and Sox9
§ Identified to be functional in stem cells, but have little to no function in the surrounding
epithelial tissue
§ The schematic shows high levels of these markers at the base of the
crypt
§ The level of expression decreases as you move up the crypt into the
mucosa as the stem cells there tend to be more differentiated
(Figure taken from Aghaallaei et al., 2016)
�New Techniques
§Phylogenetic comparison- Using gene
sequencing to compare how similar a
given gene is across species
§Created using the NCBI database records
of the Lgr5 gene
§ Necturus is not fully sequenced, so its
relative the frog was used in its place
§Highlighted species being worm, rat,
human, frog, and mouse moving from top
to bottom
§Shows the species with most sequence
homology to the frog is the mouse
§ Mice are known to have proliferative
intestinal crypts
�New Techniques
§Created using the NCBI database records of
the Sox9 gene
§Highlighted species being zebrafish, rat,
human, mouse, frog, and worm moving from
top to bottom.
§Important to note- These trees don’t
represent conclusive data, but show the
possibility of a certain function via the
species’ relationships
�Conclusion
§Recent literature has given us a detailed understanding of the intestinal makeup of other close
species, which could be compared to historical preparations of the Necturus.
§In mammals, using visualization of signaling pathways and migration patterns, intestinal
aggregates were shown to be crypts of Lieberkühn
§The aggregates of the Necturus are comparable in morphology, location, and pattern of
occurrence to the crypts of Lieberkühn
§In mice, similar patterns of mitosis were found as noted in the Necturus- High mitotic index in
the aggregates, and very low mitotic index and epithelium
§From this we conclude that the “aggregates” are most likely indeed equivalent to the Crypts of
Lieberkühn in the mammalian small intestine
�References
Aghaallaei, N., Gruhl, F., Schaefer, C., Wernet, T., Weinhardt, V., Centanin, L., Loosli, F., Baumbach, T., & Wittbrodt, J. (2016). Identification, visualization and clonal analysis of
intestinal stem cells in fish. The Company of Biologists, 143(19), 3470-3480
Bates, G. (1904). The histology of the digestive tract of Amblystoma punctatum. Tufts University Studies,
Beattie, A. M., Whiles, M. R., & Willink, P. W. (2017). Diets, population structure, and seasonal activity patterns of mudpuppies (Necturus maculosus) in an urban, Great Lakes
coastal habitat. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 43(1), 132–143.
Birchenough, G., Johansson, M., Gustafsson, J., Bergstrom J and Hansson, G. (2015). New developments in goblet cell mucus secretion and function. Mucosal Immunology, 8,
712-719.
Cardiff, R., Miller, C., and Munn, Robert. (2014a). Manual Hematoxylin and Eosin Staining of Mouse Tissue Sections. Cold Spring Harbor Protocols, 655-658
Cardiff, R., Miller, C., and Munn, Robert. (2014b). Mouse tissue fixation. Cold Spring Harbor Protocols, 522-524
Dawson, A. (1927). On the role of the so-called intestinal glands of the Necturus with a note on mucin formation. Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, 46(1), 114.
Graham, L. & Orenstein, J. (2007). Processing tissue and cells for transmission electron microscopy in diagnostic pathology and research. Nature Protocols, 2, 2439-2450..
Herreid, C. (2019). The Mudpuppy. Evolutionary Biology. http://www.bio200.buffalo.edu
Kee, N., Sivalingam, S., Booonstra R., and Wojtowicz, J. (2002). The utility of Ki-67 and BrdU as proliferative markers of adult neurogenesis. Journal of Neuroscience Methods,
97-105
�References
Kingsbury, B. (1894). The histological structure of the enteron of the Necturus maculatus. American Microscopical Society, 16(1), 19-64.
Mead, H. (1916). On the so-called intestinal glands in Necturus maculatus. Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, 35(2), 125-130
Ross, Michael H. (2011). Histology: A Text and Atlas. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-7200-6.
Safi, R., Vlaeminck-Guillem, V., Duffraisse, M., Seugnet, I., Plateroti, M., Margotat, A., Duterque-Coquillaud, M., Crespi, E. J., Denver, R. J., Demeneix, B., & Laudet, V. (2006).
Pedomorphosis revisited: thyroid hormone receptors are functional in Necturus maculosus. Evolution & Development, 8(3), 284–292.
Ahmed, S., Adbelrahman, S., and Hassan, E. (2015). Effect of low frequency noise on fundic mucosa of adult male albino rats and the role of vitamin E supplementation
(histological and immunohistochemical study). Journal of Clinical & Experimental Pathology, 5(6), 256-265.
Sato, Y., Mukai, K., Watanabe, S., Goto, M, and Shimosato, T. (1986). The AMeX method. A simplified technique of tissue processing and paraffin embedding with improved
preservation of antigens for immunostaining. American Journal of Pathology. 125, 431-435.
Staeubli, Willy. (1963). A new embedding technique for electron microscopy, combining a water-soluble epoxy resin (Durcupan) with water-insoluble Araldite. Journal of Cell
Biology, 16, 197-201
Umar, S. (2010). Intestinal stem cells. Current Gastroenterology Reports, 12, 340-348
Wonderly, D. (1963). A comparative study of the gross anatomy of the digestive system of some north american salamanders. Journal of the Ohio Herpetological Society, 4, 3148
Xu, L., Lin., W., Wen, L., and Li, G. (2019). Lgr5 in cancer biology: functional identification of Lgr5 in cancer progression and potential opportunities for novel therapy. Stem Cell
Research & Therapy.
�
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The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Senior Presentations Archive
Description
An account of the resource
This archive contains materials from Wagner’s annual ‘Senior Presentations.’ This event honors outstanding students from each discipline who completed their Senior Learning Community project with excellence. The work is representative of Wagner’s highest standards, and is exemplary of the diversity of subject matter, public-facing scholarship, and civic-minded professionalism our students have attained through their four years here. These students were specially invited to present their work in a formal setting, traditionally the day of Baccalaureate. Students are encouraged to present their work in a format appropriate for their discipline, and so, the presentations vary in their format. Some might be in the form of a short video, or paper abstracts, while others might be posters or music clips. We expect this archive to serve as a resource for generations to come. Congratulations to our Seniors!
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2017 -
Rights Holder
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
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Date Digital
2021
Original Format
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Presentation
Dublin Core
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Identifier
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2021_Biopsychology_Wolf
Creator
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Kaelin Wolf
Date
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5/1/2021
Title
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Analysis of the Function of Small Intestinal Aggregates of the Necturus Based on Old Classical and Recent Literature Data
Contributor
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Dr. Zoltan Fulop
Biopsychology
Type
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Text
Format
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Application/pdf
Extent
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17 slides
Language
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eng
Rights
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U.S. and international copyright laws may protect this work. It is provided by Wagner College for scholarly or research purposes only. Commercial use or distribution is not permitted without prior permission of the copyright holder.
Rights Holder
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
Biopsychology