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Kairos House in winter
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Chapels
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Rotzokou 1
Elena Rotzokou
Departmental Honors Thesis Abstract – English Department
‘Centre and Circumference’: The Status of the Object and the Formation of Aesthetic Experience
in Shelley’s “Alastor” and “Mont Blanc”
My departmental honors thesis makes a case for Percy Bysshe Shelley’s ambivalently
materialist aesthetic through a close reading of two of his early poems, “Alastor; or, the Spirit of
Solitude” (1815), and “Mont Blanc” (1816). In other words, I argue that the type of aesthetic
experience both of these poems seek to attain acknowledges rather than elides the object even as
it valorizes its susceptibility to the subject’s transformative control. By an “object” I understand
that which lies beyond consciousness and is, therefore, ontologically inaccessible.
Far from approaching Shelley’s aesthetic as object- rather than subject-centered, though,
I contend that it stages a tension in spite of itself. On the one hand, Shelley’s belief in the
subjective nature of reality and the linguistic sign’s arbitrariness liberate the idealist drive
underlying much of his work, including the two poems I examine; if external reality and
linguistic signifiers are valid insofar as a human percipient wills their hypostasis, then the lyric
subject can fashion its aesthetic experience independently. On the other hand, it is paradoxically
Shelley’s conceptualization of language as expressive yet not referential, and of reality as
constituted through individual perception that justifies the poet’s quest to represent aesthetically
rich objects; for to the extent that objects are inaccessible and language a manmade construct, a
poet has the liberty to represent as material any materiality that is inaccessible and, by extension,
unrepresentable. Although it is true that, if valid, the latter position salvages idealism in its
purport to foreground materialism, part of my argument is that idealism is inextricable from
Shelley’s materialist aesthetic, and that subject and object are co-dependent in his poetry. I
�Rotzokou 2
explain the above two ideas by putting Shelley’s thought on poetry, language, and reality in
conversation with that of the German Romantic poet Novalis, whose fragmented, philosophical
prose powerfully critiques Fichtean – and Kantian – subjectivism by insisting on this precise
co-dependency between the objective and the subjective.
The research I pursued in developing my thesis exposed me to two opposing critical
camps that have dominated and continue to dominate the landscape of scholarship on Shelley
and the British Romantics in general. My thesis partially aligns itself with recent, object-oriented
approaches – represented by Greg Ellermann and Anne C. McCarthy, among others – that
critique the inordinate valorization of the aesthetic characterizing the older critical tradition –
represented by the likes of M.H. Abrams and Harold Bloom. Nonetheless, it does not subscribe
to object-oriented, or speculative realist, approaches uncritically. Although my interest in the
status of the “object” in Shelley’s poetry is indebted to the speculative realist turn in Romantic
criticism, I depart from it in three ways: 1) I do not claim that Shelley’s poems often verge on
achieving a total suspension of subjectivity; 2) rather than substitute a material for an ideational
absolute, I dispense with absolutes altogether; 3) and I insist on Shelley’s staunch interest in the
aesthetic as truth – an interest that consciously accommodates the fact that he is disabused of the
notion that poetic language is referential. Notwithstanding our differences, my wider interest in
the aesthetic is largely shared by speculative realist critics, as is my opposition to historicist
critics’ relegation of the Romantic aesthetic to an ideology.
The work I performed for my thesis has made me aware of two larger implications of my
argument. Firstly, and in light of recent developments in the environmental humanities, I have
become attentive to the urgency of re-evaluating and repurposing the role of the object in our
inquiry into the formation of aesthetic experience in literature. Though my thesis employs
�Rotzokou 3
deconstructive and formalist rather than ecocritical interpretive tools, it is closely attuned to the
recent posthumanist turn in the humanities. Secondly, my engagement with a German Romantic
has made me cognizant of the extent to which we can benefit from an approach to Romanticism
– whether one regards it as a conceptual or a historically-dependent category, or both – as a
transnational movement.
�
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Senior Presentations Archive
Description
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This archive contains materials from Wagner’s annual ‘Senior Presentations.’ This event honors outstanding students from each discipline who completed their Senior Learning Community project with excellence. The work is representative of Wagner’s highest standards, and is exemplary of the diversity of subject matter, public-facing scholarship, and civic-minded professionalism our students have attained through their four years here. These students were specially invited to present their work in a formal setting, traditionally the day of Baccalaureate. Students are encouraged to present their work in a format appropriate for their discipline, and so, the presentations vary in their format. Some might be in the form of a short video, or paper abstracts, while others might be posters or music clips. We expect this archive to serve as a resource for generations to come. Congratulations to our Seniors!
Date
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2017 -
Rights Holder
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
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2021
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Abstract
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Elena Rotzokou
Date
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5/1/2021
Title
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‘Centre and Circumference’: The Status of the Object and the Formation of Aesthetic Experience in Shelley’s “Alastor” and “Mont Blanc”
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Susan Bernardo
English
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Text
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application/pdf
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3 pages
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eng
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
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2021_English_Rotzokou
English
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fc239fc6f47d9cb7b80946a358b65f51
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Text
“Listen-Grab-Go” When Volcano Kīlauea Erupts in Southern Hawaii
Olivia Barone WCSN, Sara Nesimi WCSN, Etnada Poga WCSN
Wagner College Evelyn L. Spiro School of Nursing
Abstract
● A volcanic eruption is dangerous to any community and can affect the health of the population who lives
near an active volcano. Unfortunately, no one can stop a natural disaster. However, the potentially affected
communities can prepare for one. 1 The CDC states several health problems associated with volcanic
eruptions. In early May 2018, Volcano Kīlauea erupted which caused the southern part of Hawaii to be
destroyed and left the population to have health injuries related to the volcanic eruption. 2 From May
through August, Volcano Kīlauea was erupting causing large lava flows to cover parts of the island and
destroyed the community. 3 Kīlauea is the youngest and most active volcano on the Island of Hawaii. The
proposal for the research study analyzes the health effects caused by the 2018 Volcanic Kīlauea eruption in
Southern Hawaii. Will having an emergency preparedness plan minimize health problems associated with
volcanic eruptions in adults who live in Southern Hawaii?
Community
● The
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
community this research study is going to focus on is Southern Hawaii. The largest ethnic group, in
2018, was the Asian and Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic) groups. 4
In Hawaii, the fastest age group to increase was the age group 65 and older. From 1998 to 2018, this
population increased by 68%. The age group that declined the most was the age group of 35 to 49. This
age group dropped 6.3% from 1998 to 2018. 4
In 2020, the patient-to-primary care physician ratio is 1,387 to 1. A total of $7,299 is spent on personal
health care in Hawaii. The health care coverage in Hawaii is as follows: 4.89% are uninsured, 51.8% are
employer coverage, 16.4% have Medicaid, 15.8% have Medicare, 10.4% are non-group and 0.775% are
military or VA. 5
The median household income in Kauai, Hawaii has an annual income of $82,818. The United States
median annual income is $64,994. Hawaii median annual income is more than the national average. 5
In Hawaii, 36.4k is employed by an occupation. In Kauai County, the most common job groups are Sales
and Related Occupations, Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations. 5
The lowest number of employees Hawaii has are in Architecture and Engineering Occupations, Life,
Physical, and Social Science, Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations, Computer Mathematical
Occupations, and Legal Occupations. 5
The leading cause of death in Hawaii are heart disease, cancer, and strokes. Furthermore, pneumonia had
637 deaths. 5 Hawaii promotes blood pressure screening, education and management to the at- risk
population. 6
Around 3,000 people lost their jobs as a result of the eruption in 2018. Farms reported a loss of more than
$27,000,000 in assets and potential future sales. Over 12 months, the island lost out on upward of
415,000,000 in tourism losses. 7
Problem
● The high temperatures of the gasses and entrained
particles causes burns to be the most prevalent health
problem in Southern Hawaii when volcanic eruptions
happen. 8
● Burns are the deadliest skin injury during an episode
of volcano eruption “due to the unpredictable spread
of the lava, volcanic gasses, and ashfall” 9
● In 2010, the eruption of Mount Merapi in Indonesia
caused, “45% of patients to experience 40-79% total
body surface range, while 35 (3%) patients suffered
over 80% TBSA burn… and of those only one patient
survived” 10
● Burns not only affect the skin but it affects the eyes
and respiratory system as well due to inhalation of
gasses emitted by the volcanic eruption.
● Mount St. Helens eruption that occurred in
Washington, United States, revealed that high
temperature gasses and entrained particles that cause
burns also caused “a rise in ED visits due to
conjunctivitis” after the eruption happened 8
● After the eruption of Volcano Kīlauea, there was an
increase in symptoms of cough, phlegm, chest
tightness, and dyspnea 8
● Hawaii eruptions were studied and it was found that
post-eruption, “non-specific lung irritations were
increased by 46% and asthma attacks by 4%” within
the community 8
● The 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland, “50% of
adults and all children examined who had previously
been diagnosed with asthma reported an acute
exacerbation within 2 months following the eruption”
12
● According to the CDC, Hawaii ranks first in the
United States for pneumonia deaths.
Proposed Solution
HOW WILL OUR SOLUTION WORK
● The proposed solution is a three day program called “Listen, Grab, Go”
● The community of Southern Hawaii needs to adopt an emergency preparedness plan to reduce
their risk of skin, ocular, and respiratory problems. Emergency preparedness will help prevent
major health problems as previously seen with volcanic eruptions by eliminating human
exposure to the risk factors. This solution differs from what is currently in place because it is
more detailed and focused towards volcanic emergency preparedness. The solution will be
funded by FEMA.
● Many studies show that programs involving emergency preparedness reduce the risk of injuries
and death. 14
● According to theorist Callista Roy, humans are viewed as biopsychosocial adaptive systems that
cope with environmental change through the process of adaptation, and this development theory
supports emergency preparedness because residents of Hawaii must adapt to their environment
and volcanos through preparing adequately. 15
● “Listen, Grab, Go”
○ Day 1: The first day will entail how to “Listen” for a volcano warning. Listening to an
evacuation route or evacuation shelter is essential to not be near the volcanic eruption to
reduce health problems. If there is a volcano warning, residents will “Listen for emergency
information and alerts. Follow evacuation or shelter orders. If advised to evacuate, do so
early” 16
○ Day 2: The second day of the program will focus on “Grab.” While living in Southern
Hawaii, it is essential to have a grab-and-go bag already packed which will have everything
needed in case of a rapid evacuation. The participants of this program will pack an
emergency preparedness go bag. The bag will be individualized to suit everyone's personal
needs. the Hawaii Emergency Management Agency recommends a fourteen-day supply of
the basics of water, food, battery operated radio, a whistle, hygiene and cleanliness, and
medication. 17
○ Day 3: During the third day of the program, participants will be informed on the “Go”; when
to “go” evacuate, and when to “go” back home. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security
has implemented precautions when returning home after a volcanic eruption to minimize the
health problems associated with the aftermath of volcanic eruptions. 16
OBJECTIVES
● Participants will be able to identify ways to listen for a volcanic eruption warning after the first
day of the program.
● Participants will pack a go-bag which will include essentials that will be needed in case of an
emergency evacuation and will be individualized to fit their personal needs after the second day
of the program
● Participants will teach back safety precautions taken when returning home after a volcanic
eruption after the third day of the program.
GOALS
● The goals of our program, once achieved, will bring down the rates of skin, ocular, and
respiratory problems in Southern Hawaii creating a healthy, emergency preparedness
community.
● “Listen, Grab, Go” will ultimately ensure safety for the residents of Southern Hawaii. This
program will be directed at preparing the residents for an emergency eruption by evacuating
which will ultimately reduce direct exposure to the harms associated with volcanic eruptions.
References
1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, January 25). Key facts about volcanic eruptions. CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/volcanoes/facts.html#print
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
National Park Services. (2021, June 7). 2018 Eruption and Summit Collapse. Hawaii Volcanoes. https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/nature/2018eruption.htm#:~:text=In%202018%2C%20a%20new%20eruption,areas%20in%20the%20Puna%20District
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. (n.d.). Active volcanoes of Hawaii. USGS. https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoeshawaii#:~:text=K%C4%ABlauea%2C%20the%20youngest%20and%20most,the%20volcano's%20East%20Rift%20Zone.
USA Facts. (2022, July). Our changing population: Hawaii County. Hawaii. USAFACTS.https://usafacts.org/data/topics/people-society/population-and-demographics/our-changingpopulation/state/hawaii/county/hawaii-county?endDate=2018-01-01&startDate=1998-01-01
Data USA. (n.d.). Kauai County, HI. DATAUSA. Kauai County, HI | Data USA
State of Hawaii, Department of Health. (2023). Heart Disease and Stroke Program. Chronic Disease management. https://health.hawaii.gov/heart-disease-stroke/
Institute for Sustainable Development. (2020, December). 2018 Kīlauea disaster economic recovery plan. Hawaiicounty.gov.
https://recovery.hawaiicounty.gov/home/showpublisheddocument/302779/637426801061170000
Beylin, D., Mantal, O., Haik, J., Kornhaber, R., Cleary, M., Neil, A., & Harats, M. (2022). Soft tissue-related injuries sustained following volcanic eruptions: An integrative review. Burns, 48(7), 1727–
1742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2021.09.008
Meredith, E. S., Jenkins, S. F., Hayes, J. L., Deligne, N. I., Lallemant, D., Patrick, M., & Neal, C. (2022). Damage assessment for the 2018 lower East Rift Zone lava flows of Kīlauea volcano, Hawaiʻi.
Bulletin of Volcanology, 84(7), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-022-01568-2
Baxter, P. J., Jenkins, S., Seswandhana, R., Komorowski, J.-C., Dunn, K., Purser, D., Voight, B., & Shelley, I. (2017). Human survival in volcanic eruptions: Thermal injuries in pyroclastic surges, their
causes, prognosis and emergency management. Burns, 43(5), 1051–1069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2017.01.025
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018, April 13). Stats of the State of Hawaii. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved March 28, 2023, from
https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/states/hawaii/hawaii.htm
Carlsen, H. K., Gislason, T., Benediktsdottir, B., Kolbeinsson, T. B., Hauksdottir, A., Thorsteinsson, T., & Briem, H. (2012). A survey of early health effects of the Eyjafjallajokull 2010 eruption in Iceland:
a population-based study. BMJ open, 2(2), e000343. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000343
Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2021). Developing and maintaining emergency operations plans. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_cpg-101-v3-developing-maintainingeops.pdf
Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2021). Developing and maintaining emergency operations plans. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_cpg-101-v3-developing-maintainingeops.pdf
Roy, C., & Andrews, H. (2009). The Roy Adaptation Model. (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.
U.S Department of Homeland Security. (2022). Volcanoes. Ready.gov. https://www.ready.gov/volcanoes
Hawaii Emergency Management Agency. (2022). Preparedness information. Ehawaii.gov https://dod.hawaii.gov/hiema/public-resources/preparedness-information/
�
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Title
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Senior Presentations Archive
Description
An account of the resource
This archive contains materials from Wagner’s annual ‘Senior Presentations.’ This event honors outstanding students from each discipline who completed their Senior Learning Community project with excellence. The work is representative of Wagner’s highest standards, and is exemplary of the diversity of subject matter, public-facing scholarship, and civic-minded professionalism our students have attained through their four years here. These students were specially invited to present their work in a formal setting, traditionally the day of Baccalaureate. Students are encouraged to present their work in a format appropriate for their discipline, and so, the presentations vary in their format. Some might be in the form of a short video, or paper abstracts, while others might be posters or music clips. We expect this archive to serve as a resource for generations to come. Congratulations to our Seniors!
Date
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2017 -
Rights Holder
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
Document
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Date Digital
2023
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text
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If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Poster
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2023_Nursing_Group10 Barone Nesimi Poga
Creator
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Olivia Barone, Sara Nesimi, Etnada Poga
Date
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5/1/2023
Title
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"Listen-Grab-Go" When Volcano Kilauea Erupts in Southern Hawaii
Contributor
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Lorrie DeSena
Nursing
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application/pdf
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1 page
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eng
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
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fec8b610c9b31d5636033f21f21d0f43
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DIVISION I SPORTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON STUDENTS’ GPA
1
“Going Pro in Something Other Than Sports”: The Effect of a Division I Student-athlete’s
Prospect of Having a Professional Career in Their Sport on Academic Performance
Kira Mordvinov
Department of Sociology
Wagner College
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Abstract
This research proposal addresses one of the most pressing issues in collegiate athletics:
the academic performance of student-athletes. The proposed study aims to examine the effect
that a Division I student-athlete’s prospect of having a professional career in their sport after
college has on their academic performance. With the implementation of academic standards set
by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), research indicates that certain groups
of student-athletes may fair worse in their studies than others, namely male athletes of highrevenue sports, and it is argued that it is the responsibility of the institutions to provide the
academic support necessary to help these student-athletes succeed. Many athletes have their eyes
set on a professional career in their sport; however, statistics show that most of them will not
fulfill those aspirations. Therefore it is vitally important that they gain a valuable education that
prepares them for the workforce. This study proposes a quantitative analysis of grade point
average (GPA) data of Division I collegiate student-athletes in order to compare the academic
performance of student-athletes that participated in a sport that gives them the prospect of having
a professional career after college, and student-athletes that participated in a sport that does not
give them that prospect while controlling for other factors such as socioeconomic status, race,
gender, etc. The findings can aid institutions in enhancing their academic support services
offered, thus facilitating their ability to ensure academic success among their student-athletes.
Keywords: college performance, GPA, college sports, career perspective
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“Going Pro in Something Other Than Sports”: The Effect of a Division I Student-athlete’s
Prospect of Having a Professional Career in Their Sport on Academic Performance
“There are over 380,000 student-athletes, and most of us go pro in something other than sports.”
- This was the tagline in a 2007 branding campaign by the National Collegiate Athletic
Association (NCAA), addressing the harsh reality that, despite their aspirations, very few
collegiate student-athletes go on to pursue a professional career in their sport after college. That
being said, the NCAA emphasizes the importance of athletes gaining a meaningful and valuable
education that prepares them to be successful in the workforce (2007). At the Division I level,
this has led to the implementation of firm standards of academic performance for student-athletes
among member institutions; however, research calls into question the effectiveness of the
standards in accomplishing their intended goal (Benford, 2007; Blackman, 2008; Bruton, 2002;
Mondello, 2000; Nwadike et al., 2016). There is wide concern that student-athletes are being
deprived of a meaningful educational experience due to major “clustering” (Benford, 2007;
Paskus, 2012; Paule & Gilson, 2011; Ridpath et al., 2007), academic fraud (Adamek, 2017;
Benford, 2007; Ridpath et al., 2007; Upthegrove et al., 1999), and inadequate support services
that are designed to merely maintain the eligibility of student-athletes to compete rather than
enhance their academic success (Adamek, 2017; Benford, 2007; Dilley-Knoles et al., 2010).
Thus, student-athletes “are placed in a contradictory position--one in which decisions
regarding athletic and academic commitment seem at odds” (Upthegrove et al., 1999, p. 734).
Many scholars have studied the effects that athletic participation has on the academic
performance of Division I student-athletes (Beron & Piquero, 2016; Dilley-Knoles et al., 2010;
Paskus, 2012; Paule & Gilson, 2011; Ridpath et al., 2007; Routon & Walker, 2015; Scott et al.,
2008; Upthegrove et al., 1999; Vogel et al., 2019). Pressure to perform both athletically and
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academically, while balancing heavy time demands have been attributed to negative impacts on
the academic performance of these athletes, especially those in higher-profile sports (DilleyKnoles et al., 2010; Ridpath et al., 2007; Routon & Walker, 2015; Upthegrove et al., 1999).
Although there has been research that acknowledges how a student-athlete’s personal goals may
affect their academics; very few studies focused specifically on, arguably, the target audience of
the 2007 NCAA campaign: those who have their eyes set on a professional career in their sport.
This proposal seeks to gain a better understanding of what drives the differences in
academic performance between student-athletes who participated in a sport that gives them the
prospect of having a professional career after college, and student-athletes who participated in a
sport that does not give them that prospect. The findings of this proposed study can aid athletic
administrators, coaches, and academic staff in the enhancement of the academic support services
they offer. Identifying the student-athletes who tend to struggle, and the areas that need
improvement will be essential in designing programs that ensure their long-term success, both in
the classroom and in their future endeavors. Essentially, it will allow them to “go pro in
something other than their sport.”
Literature Review
Since its founding in 1906, the NCAA has been faced with the challenge of supporting
student-athletes to maintain the balance between athletics and academics. In the Constitution of
the Division I manual (2022), the NCAA defines its commitment to sound academic standards as
one of the primary purposes of the organization:
“Standards of the Association governing participation in intercollegiate athletics
shall be designed to ensure proper emphasis on educational objectives and the
opportunity for academic success, including graduation, of student-athletes.
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Intercollegiate athletics programs shall be maintained as an important component
of the educational program, and student-athletes shall be an integral part of the
student body” (p. xiii).
In order to uphold this standard, the NCAA has developed minimum requirements for current
and prospective Division I student-athletes to be eligible to compete in their sport. This includes
maintaining a 2.3 grade point average (GPA), achieving a certain percentage of progress toward
their degree after each academic year (40% by the end of year two, 60% by the end of year three,
and 80% by the end of year four), and more recently, the Academic Progress Rate (APR)
evaluation. The NCAA’s rationale for its academic standards is to maximize graduation rates
among student-athletes. There are data supporting that student-athletes who meet the percentageof-degree requirements and minimum GPA standards are most likely to graduate (NCAA, 2021).
This falls in line with the organization’s overarching goal of integrating athletics with academics,
and the NCAA website (2021) states, “because we believe success in the classroom is just as
important as winning on the field, we have standards to ensure student-athletes make progress
toward a degree – every year and every season” (para. 1). In what is arguably the “most
passionately contested issue in the history of college athletics” (Mondello, 2000, p. 128), the
academic standards set by the NCAA have both critics and supporters, and many have sought out
to determine if they are actually effective. Many have argued that the standards have had a
disparate impact on both ethnoracial minority and/or low-income student-athletes (Blackman,
2008; Bruton, 2002; Mondello, 2000; Nwadike et al., 2016). However, in the case Cureton v.
NCAA (1999), which concerned this matter, the court held that the NCAA’s desire to raise
student-athlete graduation rates was a well-documented and legitimate goal. Scholars have found
that the standards have succeeded in increasing eligibility, retention, and graduation of student-
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athletes (Dilley-Knoles et al., 2010; Paskus, 2012) because schools are able to recognize
deficiencies and implement change (Paskus, 2012). However, there is still progress to be made in
assessing the academic risk of student-athletes (Paskus, 2012). Benford (2007) and others have
argued that these reforms fail to produce lasting structural and cultural change.
As the NCAA raised its academic standards, athletic departments began to commit
violations in order to keep their players eligible to compete, known as academic fraud (Adamek,
2017). Bylaw 14 of the Division I NCAA manual defines academic fraud as “knowing
involvement in arranging for fraudulent academic credit or false transcripts” and “providing
impermissible academic assistance” to a prospective or an enrolled student-athlete (2016).
Colleges or universities willing to commit these violations have been accused of putting the
athlete status of their student-athletes ahead of their student status (Ridpath et al., 2007;
Upthegrove et al., 1999), and prioritizing winning over academic integrity (Adamek, 2017;
Benford, 2007). At the basic level, this is seen in what has been deemed “academic clustering.”
“Academic clustering” is when athletes are systematically guided into less rigorous classes and
majors with “professor-friendly” courses with the purpose of maintaining their academic
eligibility while competing (Ridpath et al., 2007, pg. 62; see also Benford, 2007; Paskus, 2012;
Paule & Gilson, 2011). Even further, there have been many instances of athletic departments
blatantly covering up student-athletes’ academic dishonesty and cheating with the assistance of
faculty, tutors, and academic support, which can amount to publicized crimes (Benford, 2007).
Many scholars share the common concern that these problems have only gotten worse through
the commercialization of college sports, which has emphasized revenue generated by television
contracts, product endorsements, and advertisements (Adamek, 2017; Benford, 2007;
Upthegrove et al., 1999). Athletic departments have demonstrated they are willing to break the
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rules and commit academic fraud when it comes to maximizing this revenue potential (Adamek,
2017). This is especially true when it comes to the college sports that bring in the most money,
Division I men’s basketball and football, which have become highly profitable enterprises
(Benford, 2007) that institutions have learned to depend on for the generation of revenue
(Upthegrove et al., 1999). Studies confirm that these revenue sports are more likely to engage in
academic fraud, accounting for over 70% of cases; and that the more revenue a sport brings to a
university, the greater the likelihood that academic misconduct will occur (Adamek, 2017).
Overall, this has led to a distortion of the academic values of intercollegiate athletics as well as
the undermining of the integrity and mission of higher education (Benford, 2007; Upthegrove et
al., 1999). More importantly, “athletes are cheated out of the one thing they were promised in
return for their athletic performance: a college education” (Benford, 2007, p. 15).
With the NCAA’s goal of restoring the educational value of the student-athlete
experience, there has been a plethora of research done to determine the effects that athletic
participation has on the academic performance of Division I student-athletes. Research shows
that the academic difficulties of athletes vary in revenue-generating and non-revenue-generating
sports (Paskus, 2012; Paule & Gilson, 2011; Ridpath et al., 2007; Routon & Walker, 2015; Scott
et al., 2008; Upthegrove et al., 1999), gender (Dilley-Knoles et al., 2010; Ridpath et al., 2007;
Routon & Walker, 2015), as well as the student-athletes self-identity and future goals regarding
their athlete status (Paskus, 2012; Ridpath et al., 2007; Routon & Walker, 2015; Upthegrove et
al., 1999; Vogel et al., 2019). The largest disparity in academic performance has been found in
athletes participating in the traditional revenue sports of men’s basketball and football, with
research showing their academics are negatively impacted by their athletic endeavors (Ridpath et
al., 2007; Routon & Walker, 2015; Upthegrove et al., 1999). The GPA of revenue student-
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athletes are averaged at .19-.3 lower than that of their non-revenue student-athlete counterparts
(Routon & Walker, 2015; Upthegrove et al., 1999), and they are twice as likely to have been
placed on academic probation and have to repeat courses (Upthegrove et al., 1999). The
heightened level of competitive intensity in revenue sports puts these athletes at a disadvantage
academically (Upthegrove et al., 1999) due to the heavy time demands (Routon & Walker,
2015), as well as the pressures put on them to win games taking priority over academic work
(Dilley-Knoles et al., 2010; Ridpath et al., 2007). In contrast, non-revenue student-athletes
revealed more positive than negative associations with academics while pursuing their athletic
careers including increased goal-setting and discipline (Paule & Gilson, 2011).
Women’s sports as a whole are generally included in the non-revenue category (Ridpath
et al., 2007), and studies show that female student-athletes achieve significantly higher academic
levels than male student-athletes (Eng, 2015; Dilley-Knoles et al., 2010; Eng, 2015; Ridpath et
al., 2007; Tudor & Ridpath, 2019). Male student-athletes often experience role conflict occurring
between athletics and the monetary incentives of revenue sports, and their academic endeavors
(Dilley-Knoles et al., 2010; Eng, 2015), which arguably causes them to struggle academically
and decrease their chances of graduating (Eng, 2015). On the other hand, female athletes are able
to avoid this conflict, allowing them to adhere to the “ideal student-athlete model” (Eng, 2015, p.
186). They are more likely to put a larger emphasis on academics, have the ability to balance
time better, and show an increased commitment to complete their degree (Eng, 2015; Tudor &
Ridpath, 2019).
A common thread highlighted by many scholars in explaining the difference in academic
achievement between male revenue student-athletes and their female and nonrevenue studentathlete counterparts is their self-identity and personal goals (Paskus, 2012; Ridpath et al., 2007;
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Routon & Walker, 2015; Tudor & Ridpath, 2019; Upthegrove et al., 1999; Vogel et al., 2019).
Male student-athletes in high-profile revenue sports are prone to have a higher athletic identity
than academic identity (Paskus, 2012; Vogel et al., 2019), and many have indicated that they
would not have attended college had they not been an athlete (Upthegrove et al., 1999; Vogel et
al., 2019). They often come to college solely to advance their athletic careers (Ridpath et al.,
2007), rendering many unprepared for and uninterested in obtaining a degree, causing them to
struggle academically and have lower GPAs (Upthegrove et al., 1999; Vogel et al., 2019). In
contrast, studies show that female nonrevenue student-athletes have higher academic motivation
and lower sport motivation than their male counterparts (Tudor & Ridpath, 2019), and were more
willing to sacrifice athletics participation for academics (Vogel et al., 2019). This can largely be
attributed to it being more likely for male revenue student-athletes to believe they will play their
sport professionally (Paskus, 2012; Upthegrove et al., 1999; Vogel et al., 2019), as research
indicates a student-athlete’s prospect of having a career in their sport after college is positively
correlated with athlete identity (Beron & Piquero, 2016). Over 75% of Division I men’s
basketball players have expectations of a professional career, with a large number of women’s
basketball, football, and baseball players also having such expectations (Paskus, 2012). With the
likelihood of continuing as a professional athlete after college ranging from 1-9% (NCAA),
unfortunately, the vast majority of these athletes will not fulfill these aspirations (Routon &
Walker, 2015) and their education will be sacrificed in the process (Upthegrove et al., 1999).
Many scholars argue that it is the university’s obligation to provide the academic services
and support that the student-athletes need to succeed academically (Adamek, 2017; Benford,
2007; Dilley-Knoles et al., 2010; Paskus, 2012; Paule & Gilson, 2011; Ridpath et al., 2007; Scott
et al., 2008; Upthegrove et al., 1999; Vogel et al., 2019). Most colleges have implemented these
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academic support services; however, they are often designed merely to maintain the eligibility of
the student-athletes (Adamek, 2017; Benford, 2007) rather than to provide them with the tools
they need to succeed academically (Benford, 2007). It has been argued that this not only deprives
them of a quality educational experience, but it also hinders their ability to succeed in the adult
world (Benford, 2007; Dilley-Knoles et al., 2010). However, it must be taken into account that
the disparity in academics between various student-athletes could stem from background
demographics such as ethnoracial and/or socioeconomic status that may result in inequalities on
an individual basis. Therefore, academic support programs are not “one size fits all” (DilleyKnoles et al., 2010, para. 21), and schools need to recognize the magnitude of risk for certain
sports and student-athletes (Paskus, 2012).
Research Question and Hypothesis
This research proposal builds on existing research and takes on a new perspective by
investigating the question: Does a Division I student-athletes prospect of having a professional
career in their sport after college affect their academic performance? The two groups for
comparison will be student-athletes who participated in a sport that gives them the prospect of
having a professional career in their sport after college, and student-athletes who participated in a
sport that does not give them that prospect. By comparing the academic performance of these
two groups, this study will test the hypothesis that: If a Division I student-athlete has the
prospect of having a professional career in their sport after college, then it will negatively affect
their academic performance because their athletic career will take priority over their academic
success.
Proposed Methods and Data
This section discusses the proposed methods of data collection and analysis for this
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research project in order to examine whether Division I student-athletes' prospect of having a
professional career in their sport after college has an effect on their academic performance. This
proposed study would entail a quantitative analysis of GPA data of collegiate student-athletes
and will utilize a comparative research design.
Due to the large amount of Division I athletes across the United States, this proposed
study will purely focus on a sample of student-athletes at a small mid-major Division I institution
in the Northeast Conference (NEC). The participants in this study will include the 21 NCAA
Division I sports teams offered by this institution, comprised of eight men’s teams and 13
women’s teams, for the 2017-2019 and 2021-2023 school years pictured in Table 1. Due to the
overlap of student-athletes in track and field and cross country, these sports will be counted as
one men’s sport and one women’s sport for logistics purposes.
Table 1
Overview of sports to be included in the study
Men’s Sports
Baseball
Basketball
Cross Country/Track & Field
Football
Golf
Lacrosse
Tennis
Water Polo
Women’s Sports
Basketball
Bowling
Cross Country/Track & Field
Fencing
Field Hockey
Golf
Lacrosse
Soccer
Softball
Swimming & Diving
Tennis
Triathlon
Water Polo
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The eligibility rosters of each team will be obtained from the University’s athletic
department which will be used to determine which student-athletes were eligible and ineligible
for competition during the 2017-2019 and 2021-2023 school years. Additionally, the
participation statistics for each sport will be acquired from the athletic department to determine
which student-athletes competed in games or matches for both school years. Only studentathletes who were eligible, and competed in at least one game or match will be included in the
study; all other participants will be excluded. The GPA data for each student-athlete will be
obtained in an anonymized list from the registrar’s office at the institution, along with each
student-athlete’s race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, scholarship amount, country of
origin, major, and if they are a transfer student. Data will then be separated into two groups for
comparison: student-athletes who participated in a sport that gives them the prospect of having a
professional career in their sport after college, and student-athletes who participated in a sport
that does not give them that prospect. For the purposes of this study, this differentiation, shown
in Table 2 is based on the major professional sports leagues in the United States that provide the
ability to make a living.
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Table 2
Separation of sports teams for comparison
Sports that provide the prospect of having a
professional career after college
Football
Men’s and Women’s Basketball
Baseball
Men’s Golf
Men’s and Women’s Tennis
Sports that do not provide the prospect of having a
professional career after college
Men’s and Women’s Cross Country/Track & Field
Men’s and Women’s Lacrosse
Men’s and Women’s Water Polo
Women’s Bowling
Women’s Fencing
Women’s Field Hockey
Women’s Golf
Women’s Soccer
Softball
Women’s Swimming & Diving
Women’s Triathlon
The cumulative GPA of each student-athlete at the end of the 2017-2019 and 2021-2023
academic years will be used in order to determine the academic performance of the teams in each
respective group. GPA is an optimal dependent variable because it is the most common measure
of academic performance in higher education. The independent variable in question is the type of
sport played by the student-athletes. As this study is intended to examine whether Division I
student-athletes' prospect of having a professional career in their sport after college has an effect
on their academic performance; GPAs of the sports teams designated to have a prospect of
having a professional career will be compared with the sports teams that do not have that
designation. A comparative design is ideal because the variables in question are unable to be
manipulated, and this study aims to examine the difference between the dependent variable of
the two preexisting groups. Analysis of this data will be done through an independent t-test.
However, it must be taken into account that preexisting differences among student-athletes could
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potentially impact their GPA alongside athletic participation. Therefore, race, ethnicity, gender,
socioeconomic status, scholarship amount, country of origin, major, and transfer status will be
considered as control variables for the purpose of this study and will be analyzed using
regression models. These variables were chosen because they potentially play a role in what
sport the student-athletes tend to gravitate towards, and have a resulting impact on their
academic performance. Additional models will be run to complement the above-mentioned
analysis.
The first step in conducting the quantitative analysis of this study will be to clean the data
and prepare it to run various tests and models using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS). The statistical technique used for analysis will be an independent t-test in order to
compare the means of the GPA of the respective groups. This proposed study will be concerned
with determining whether or not there is a statistically significant difference between the mean
GPAs of the two groups for the 2017-2019 and 2021-2023 school years. The extent of this
difference will give insight into the effect that playing a Division I sport that provides the
prospect of having a professional career has on the academic performance of student-athletes. As
an independent t-test is a parametric test, assumptions must be met to ensure accurate analysis.
This includes normal distribution of data, homogeneity of variance, a continuous dependent
variable, and independence of each group. Next, a multiple regression will be performed using
dummy variables of race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, scholarship amount, country of origin,
major, and if the student-athlete transferred to the institution. Multiple regression assumptions,
such as linearity, homoskedasticity, independence of errors, normality, and independence of
independent variables will also be examined. This regression analysis is suitable because it
provides insight into how multiple demographic and institutional factors contribute to variability
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in the dependent variable (GPA). Additional tests and correlations will be conducted to ensure
that all factors are considered.
Expected Findings
The expected findings for this proposed study are that Division I student-athletes who
have the prospect of having a professional career in their sport after college will have a
significantly lower cumulative GPA than student-athletes who do not have that prospect. As
stated in the literature review, a majority of the student-athletes who have the potential to play
professionally have aspirations and expectations to do so (Paskus, 2012; Upthegrove et al., 1999;
Vogel et al., 2019). Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that their main focus will be on
enhancing their athletic career, and take priority over their studies; leading their academic
performance to decline in the process. It is also plausible that demographic factors can impacts
student-athletes’ academic underperformance. For example, earlier research showed that Black
American men from lower socioeconomic backgrounds were overrepresented in both football
and men’s basketball (Upthegrove et al., 1999). Given continued residential segregation and
systemic racism, many of these student-athletes likely did not have access to quality K-12
schooling with the resources to prepare them to succeed in college. Accordingly, it is reasonable
to expect that these preexisting inequalities will persist into college alongside athletic
participation and contribute to lower levels of academic achievement. At the same time,
scholarship has documented wide-spread discrimination against Black male students in the
college classroom; both by their peers and non-Black faculty (Griffith et al., 2019) which could
lead these students to look for other areas where they feel respected and where success is within
reach. On the other hand, student-athletes who are not afforded the opportunity of a professional
career in their sport are expected to have an increased GPA. It is likely they will place a larger
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commitment on academics and obtaining a degree that will prepare them for a career in the
workforce. In addition, the study would also uncover whether student-athletes who tend to
gravitate towards these sports are more likely to come from middle and upper-class backgrounds
that afford them access to a high-quality education or not.
This data has the potential to provide important insight and allow for a better
understanding of risk factors associated with the academic performance of student-athletes. In
acknowledging problem areas, this study can aid athletic administrators, coaches, and academic
staff in making informed decisions about providing student-athletes with the necessary support
needed to ensure their long-term success, both in the classroom and in their future endeavors. As
previously mentioned, a substantial amount of Division I student-athletes have the expectation of
continuing their sport professionally; however, only an estimated two percent of them will fulfill
those expectations (NCAA). Given this reality, it is of utmost importance that the education of
these student-athletes is not sacrificed for their collegiate athletic career, and they are provided
with the tools necessary to succeed in the workforce. It has been argued by many that it is the job
of the institution to provide these tools through academic services and support (Adamek, 2017;
Benford, 2007; Dilley-Knoles et al., 2010; Paskus, 2012; Paule & Gilson, 2011; Ridpath et al.,
2007; Scott et al., 2008; Upthegrove et al., 1999; Vogel et al., 2019). The information provided
by this proposed study can assist institutions in identifying the student-athletes that are shown to
struggle, allowing them to be more proactive about what forms of academic support need to be
implemented, and the specialization of these programs. This will ultimately be essential in
facilitating and enhancing their ability to promote overall academic success among studentathletes.
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Conclusion
Overall, this proposed study aims to provide important insight and extend the current
research on a recent major concern in collegiate athletics: the academic performance of studentathletes. The proposed analysis of GPA data of Division I collegiate student-athletes seeks to
answer the question of whether a Division I student-athletes prospect of having a professional
career in their sport after college affects their academic performance as well as the significance
other factors such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, etc. have. Following a comparative
design, the expected findings of this proposed study are that Division I student-athletes who have
the prospect of having a professional career in their sport after college will have a significantly
lower cumulative GPA than student-athletes that do not have that prospect. Given the reality that
it is statistically unlikely that student-athletes will go on to pursue a professional career in their
sport after college, it is of utmost importance that these athletes gain a meaningful and valuable
education that prepares them to be successful in the workforce. This proposed study can aid
institutions in enhancing their academic support services offered, thus facilitating their ability to
ensure academic success among their student-athletes and provide them with a valuable
educational experience, and address any biases and forms of discrimination that affect studentathletes.
The findings of this proposed study have limitations, which are related to the sample to
be used. As the intended sample consists of Division I athletes at a relatively small mid-major
institution in the NEC conference, it slightly reduces the generalizability of the results of the
study. More specifically, student-athletes at larger universities in more competitive conferences
may differ in the extent to which their academic performance is affected. In addition, the overall
ethnoracial make-up of the student population could also influence student-athletes experiences,
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especially since the proposed sample is from a Predominantly White Institution. Upon
completion of this proposed study, it may be beneficial to extend the research to include data
from a wide variety of colleges and universities. Nonetheless, this proposed study can be used to
enhance the student-athlete educational experience and promote success, while also shedding
light on the factors that cause student-athletes to gravitate toward certain sports and the resulting
impacts on their academics.
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Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in
Education. McGraw Hill.
�DIVISION I SPORTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON STUDENTS’ GPA
20
Griffith, A. N., Hurd, N. M., & Hussain, S. B. (2019). “I Didn’t Come to School for This”: A
Qualitative Examination of Experiences With Race-Related Stressors and Coping
Responses Among Black Students Attending a Predominantly White Institution. Journal
of Adolescent Research, 34(2), 115–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558417742983
Mondello, M. J. (2000). An Historical Overview of Student-Athlete Academic Eligibility and the
Future Implications of Cureton v. NCAA. Jeffrey S. Moorad Sports Law Journal, 7(1),
127-150.
Nwadike, A. C., Baker, A. R., Brackebusch, V. B., & Hawkins, B. J. (2016). Institutional Racism
in the NCAA and the Racial Implications of the “2.3 Or Take a Knee” Legislation
Symposium: The Changing Landscape of Collegiate Athletics. Marquette Sports Law
Review, 26(2), 523-543.
Paskus, T. S. (2012). A summary and commentary on the quantitative results of current NCAA
academic reforms. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 5(1), 41–53.
https://doi.org/10.1123/jis.5.1.41
Paule, A.L., & Gilson, T.A. (2011). Does athletic participation benefit or hinder academic
performance?: non-revenue sport athlete experiences. Journal of Contemporary Athletics,
5(3), 203-217.
Ridpath, B. D., Kiger, J., Mak, J., Eagle, T. & Letter, G. (2007). Factors that influence the
academic performance of NCAA Division I athletes. The SMART Journal, 4(1), 59-83.
Routon, P. W., & Walker, J. K. (2015). Student-athletes? The impact of intercollegiate sports
participation on academic outcomes. Eastern Economic Journal, 41(4), 592–611.
https://doi.org/10.1057/eej.2014.32
�DIVISION I SPORTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON STUDENTS’ GPA
21
Scott, B. M., Paskus, T. S., Miranda, M., Petr, T. A., & McArdle, J. J. (2008). In-season vs. Outof-season academic performance of college student-athletes. Journal of Intercollegiate
Sport, 1(2), 202–226. https://doi.org/10.1123/jis.1.2.202
Tudor, M., & Ridpath, B. D. (2019). Does gender significantly predict academic, athletic career
motivation among NCAA Division I college athletes. Journal of Higher Education
Athletics & Innovation, 1(5), 122–147. https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.23765267.2018.1.5.122-147
Upthegrove, T. R., Roscigno, V. J., & Charles, C. Z. (1999). Big Money Collegiate Sports:
Racial Concentration, Contradictory Pressures, and Academic Performance. Social
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Vogel, B. L., Jeske, D. R., & Kress, J. (2019). Student-athletes vs. athlete-students: The
academic success, campus involvement, and future goals of division I student-athletes
who were university bound compared to those who would not have attended a university
had they not been an athlete. The Sport Journal, 22.
https://thesportjournal.org/article/student-athletes-vs-athlete-students-the-academicsuccess-campus-involvement-and-future-goals-of-division-i-student-athletes-who-wereuniversity-bound-compared-to-those-who-would-not-have-attended/
�
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This archive contains materials from Wagner’s annual ‘Senior Presentations.’ This event honors outstanding students from each discipline who completed their Senior Learning Community project with excellence. The work is representative of Wagner’s highest standards, and is exemplary of the diversity of subject matter, public-facing scholarship, and civic-minded professionalism our students have attained through their four years here. These students were specially invited to present their work in a formal setting, traditionally the day of Baccalaureate. Students are encouraged to present their work in a format appropriate for their discipline, and so, the presentations vary in their format. Some might be in the form of a short video, or paper abstracts, while others might be posters or music clips. We expect this archive to serve as a resource for generations to come. Congratulations to our Seniors!
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Date Digital
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“Going Pro in Something Other Than Sports”: The Effect of a Division I Student-athlete’s Prospect of Having a Professional Career in Their Sport on Academic Performance
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Kira Mordvinov
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Dr. Bernadette Ludwig
Sociology
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“Kids Against Asthma” To Prevent Pediatric Asthma in San
Joaquin Valley
Introduction
Asthma is a chronic disease that affects individuals all over the nation.
Triggers include inhaled allergens or irritants that cause inflammation and
narrowing of the airways (1). The nation’s highest asthma rates can be seen
in the agricultural community of San Joaquin Valley, California (2).
Children of Mexican farmworkers are the vulnerable population in this
community. Due to the harmful pollutants that these children have been
exposed to, they have become more susceptible to developing asthma and
overall health problems. In order to decrease these rates, we propose to
provide a mobile asthma education program and community center to aid
in providing education to farmworkers, parents, and school personnel.
Community Analysis
The San Joaquin Valley has a current population of 745,424 residents. Of
that population, 41.6% is Hispanic/Latino (3).
In 2001, 15.8% of children and adolescents were diagnosed with pediatric
asthma in San Joaquin Valley and 13.6% were diagnosed in California as a
whole (4). Today (2016), the rate has more than doubled to 34.3% in San
Joaquin and has only slightly increased to 14.5% in the rest of California
(3).
Over the past 30 years, San Joaquin has used a specific pesticide that has
caused detrimental effects on pediatric health. Chlorpyrifos is a pesticide
that has been widely used by farmers in the San Joaquin and all over the
United States. It has many toxic effects and can cause bronchial
hypersensitivity that can trigger asthma attacks and increase the risk of
developing asthma (5).
The San Joaquin Valley has come up with various resources to help
eliminate the current health problem. These resources include the Fresno
County Asthma Coalition and the Asthma Impact Model.
● The Asthma Impact Model is a program created in 2013 to avoid ED
visits by helping low income families manage their children's asthma.
● The Fresno County Asthma Coalition has been active for over 15 years
with the support of community members, including nurses and
respiratory therapists. Members strategize approaches to provide
opportunities for asthma education at all levels (6).
Problem
-Pediatric asthma among Mexican children has become a major health problem in the San Joaquin Valley.
-California’s San Joaquin Valley is one of the most prosperous agricultural regions in the world, containing
seven of the top 10 agricultural counties in the United States (5). The pesticide use and air pollution has been
linked to high rates of asthma and other respiratory diseases.
-San Joaquin is ranked as the fourth highest county to use agricultural pesticide in California. As a result,
children are regularly exposed to aerosol spraying of pesticides and are at an elevated risk of developing
respiratory problems (5).
-Children are considered to be the most vulnerable population in San Joaquin Valley. They are at a higher risk
than adults because they absorb environmental toxins at a higher rate (5).
-San Joaquin houses the largest number of Mexican immigrant farmworkers in California. Children of
Mexican farmworkers have exceptionally high rates of asthma compared with children of Mexican descent in
both the U.S. and Mexico. Poverty and marginal living conditions increase their vulnerability to environmental
health hazards and non-communicable diseases.
-The effects of pediatric asthma on this population becomes evident when looking at the rates of Emergency
Department visits in San Joaquin. According to California Healthline, the counties in the San Joaquin have
some of the worst rates in the state (7). The California Health Interview Survey found that 30.6% of children
visited the ED or urgent care for asthma compared to 12.6% for the rest of California (8).
-According to the American Lung Association, the San Joaquin Valley has the highest pediatric asthma rates in
all of the nation (2). It remains home to some of the most polluted air in the United States, in terms of both
ozone and particle pollution (9).
-Compared with California as a whole, asthma prevalence and hospitalization rates are greater in San Joaquin
Valley (3). San Joaquin Valley residents breathe some of the nation’s dirtiest air, and about 1 in 4 children have
asthma. According to the California Health Interview Survey, this ratio makes San Joaquin the region with the
highest proportion in the state (7).
Solution
“Kids Against Asthma” is an educational program to reduce the asthma morbidity and
mortality levels in San Joaquin. Our goal is to decrease the rates of asthma related ED
visits, school absences, and the amounts of pesticides used by the farm workers in the
community.
Learning objectives to achieve our goal:
1. To help parents of affected children and school personnel to understand the triggers
of asthma and how they can be avoided.
2. To educate affected children about prescribed medication regimens to prevent
exacerbations of asthma.
3. To educate farmworkers on the use of alternative techniques to reduce pesticide use
without disrupting the agricultural production in the San Joaquin Valley.
Using Dr. Nola Pender’s Health Promotion Model we provide an educational program
to increase knowledge about achieving optimal health through interaction with San
Joaquin’s surrounding environment and community.
Our Plan:
-To provide weekly educational seminars throughout the community by means of a
mobile van funded by the county of San Joaquin Valley.
-On board the van will be 1-2 nurses, preferably Spanish speaking and of Mexican
descent, who will offer free asthma screenings and peak flow meters. This will help the
target population assess the severity of their asthma.
-To provide further education regarding: the importance of removing pesticide-filled
clothing and shoes before entering homes, the specific triggers that exacerbate pediatric
asthma and avoidance of children playing in pesticide infested fields.
-To create a community center where all children can play. In this center, children will
be away from the pesticides and will be monitored by nurses and healthcare workers.
References
1. Nuss HJ, Hester LL, Perry MA, Stewart‐Briley C, Reagon VM, Collins P. Applying the Social Ecological Model to Creating Asthma‐Friendly Schools in Louisiana [Internet].
Wiley Online
Library. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2016. Level 4
2.Childers L. Driven By High Asthma Rates, Central Valley Tries to Improve Indoor Air Quality [Internet]. California Health Report. California Health Report; 2017. Level 5
3.San Joaquin County 2016 Community Health Needs Assessment [Internet}. Level 5
4.Hernandez R, Curtis K, Carabez R. Struggling to Breathe the Epidemic of Asthma Among Children and Adolescents in the San Joaquin Valley [Internet]. Level 3
5.Glascoe CAV, Schwartz NA. Bad Lungs/Bad Air: Childhood Asthma and Ecosyndemics among Mexican Immigrant Farmworkers of Californias San Joaquin Valley. Human
Organization.
2019;78(2):110–21. Level 3
6.Fresno County Asthma Coalition - RAMP [Internet]. RAMP Fresno County Asthma Coalition Comments. Level 5
7.Rowan HB. Dirty Air And Disasters Sending Kids To The ER For Asthma [Internet]. California Healthline. 2018 Level 5
8.Alcala E, Cisneros R, Capitman JA. Health care access, concentrated poverty, and pediatric asthma hospital care use in Californias San Joaquin Valley: A multilevel approach.
Journal of Asthma. 2017;55(11):1253–61. Level 3
9.State of the Air [Internet]. American Lung Association. Level 5
�
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Senior Presentations Archive
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This archive contains materials from Wagner’s annual ‘Senior Presentations.’ This event honors outstanding students from each discipline who completed their Senior Learning Community project with excellence. The work is representative of Wagner’s highest standards, and is exemplary of the diversity of subject matter, public-facing scholarship, and civic-minded professionalism our students have attained through their four years here. These students were specially invited to present their work in a formal setting, traditionally the day of Baccalaureate. Students are encouraged to present their work in a format appropriate for their discipline, and so, the presentations vary in their format. Some might be in the form of a short video, or paper abstracts, while others might be posters or music clips. We expect this archive to serve as a resource for generations to come. Congratulations to our Seniors!
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2017 -
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
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Diemer, Jessica<br />Sokolska, Marlena<br />Volpe, Lindsay
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5/1/2020
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“Kids Against Asthma” To Prevent Pediatric Asthma in San Joaquin Valley
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Evelyn L. Spiro School of Nursing
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text
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Hagenberg, James. “Prescribing Depression: An Analysis of Patriarchal Perpetuation in The Bell
Jar and My Year of Rest and Relaxation,” 2021.
ABSTRACT:
Since at least 1960 women in the United States have been roughly twice as likely as men
to be diagnosed with depression, leaving observers to wonder: is the cause social or biological?
By looking to Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar (1963) and Otessa Moshfegh’s My Year of Rest and
Relaxation (2018), this project asks: what can fictional literature reveal about women’s
increased vulnerability to depression? By drawing upon research from feminist psychology,
specifically theories of social causation and social constructionism, the project analyzes the ways
in which external social pressures and patriarchal superstructures cause the female narrators of
these novels to be increasingly vulnerable to depression. In order to evaluate these social
pressures the project first assesses what the narrators themselves are seeking for personal
fulfillment. This is followed by an analysis of what others “prescribe” the narrators, which
includes both the literal pharmaceutical prescriptions given by the doctors of these novels, but
also the “figurative prescriptions” that the narrators receive, specifically from foil characters,
mother figures, and lovers.
The novels suggest that the reason why women are historically diagnosed with mood
disorders at higher rates than men is because they are discouraged from pursuing personal goals,
and are instead taught to uphold patriarchal values through figurative prescriptions. These
figurative prescriptions, which are most commonly shared between women, operate as a method
of perpetuating patriarchal standards, and generally attempt to make the subject more desirable to
the male gaze. Conversely, the novels suggest that literal prescriptions combined with a sort of
“feminsit therapy,” as outlined by Melva Steen, can actually be productive in dispelling the
�narrators’ depression. This is because the combination of feminist therapy and literal
prescriptions allow the narrators to lift the oppressive burden that figurative prescriptions
created, and allow the narrators to pursue their personal goals. Finally, the research makes it
evident that, although it may seem as if the standards society holds women to have changed
drastically in the last fifty years, it may be more accurate to say that societal treatment of women
has not evolved as much as one would initially expect. Instead the novels’ parallels propose that
patriarchal values are just as present in modern society as they were in 1963; they are just more
covert in modern society. In this way the novels propose very real world implications, and offer
feminist psychologists an interesting perspective as to why women continue to be
disproportionately diagnosed with depression and other mood disorders.
�
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This archive contains materials from Wagner’s annual ‘Senior Presentations.’ This event honors outstanding students from each discipline who completed their Senior Learning Community project with excellence. The work is representative of Wagner’s highest standards, and is exemplary of the diversity of subject matter, public-facing scholarship, and civic-minded professionalism our students have attained through their four years here. These students were specially invited to present their work in a formal setting, traditionally the day of Baccalaureate. Students are encouraged to present their work in a format appropriate for their discipline, and so, the presentations vary in their format. Some might be in the form of a short video, or paper abstracts, while others might be posters or music clips. We expect this archive to serve as a resource for generations to come. Congratulations to our Seniors!
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2017 -
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
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2021
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Abstract
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James Hagenberg
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5/1/2021
Title
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“Prescribing Depression: An Analysis of Patriarchal Perpetuation in The Bell Jar and My Year of Rest and Relaxation"
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Alison Arant
English
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eng
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
English
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1a0177b35129b9991863db9fcb3b3e74
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“The Shining City Upon the Hill:”
Christian Zionism and the Politics of Woodrow Wilson & Harry S. Truman
Maggie Winton
HI490: Making History/History Makers
December 2, 2020
�Winton 1
Since the Republican primaries in 2015, it has become commonplace for American
evangelicals to compare President Donald J. Trump to the Biblical King Cyrus. In the Bible, the
Persian emperor is appointed by God to fulfill his divine will, freeing the Jewish people held
captive in Babylon and rebuilding the holy city of Jerusalem.1 Just as Cyrus was anointed by God
to accomplish his divine will on Earth, so do American evangelicals perceive President Trump to
be similarly anointed by God to, as prominent evangelical speaker and author Lance Wallnau
stated, “restore the crumbling walls that separate us from cultural collapse.”2 President Trump
himself is not influenced by Christian Zionism, and therefore it is easy to attribute this
association of him with a Biblical king to a small but vocal group of fundamentalist evangelical
Christians who support him. However, the reality is that this connection of American politics to
Biblical destiny is indicative of a more pervasive and widespread belief system.3 This belief
system is known today as Christian Zionism.
Just as evangelicals currently see President Trump as the man divinely instituted to the
presidency to “restore the crumbling walls that separate us from cultural collapse,” so did certain
evangelical Protestant presidents perceive their role to be one of fulfilling God’s plan for
humanity. Such is the case with President Woodrow Wilson and President Harry Truman in the
aftermaths of the two World Wars. Each of these presidents, influenced by their own beliefs in
Christian Zionism, perceived their duty as president to be one of divine appointment, that they
had been chosen by God to restore his chosen people to the Holy Land and propel the world into
the new millennium. Within their addresses and speeches to the American public, their personal
writings, and the first-hand accounts from those who worked closely with them, Wilson and
1
Isaiah 45:1, 13.
Katherine Stewart, “Why Trump Reigns as King Cyrus,” New York Times, Dec. 31, 2018, accessed Oct. 26, 2020,
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/31/opinion/trump-evangelicals-cyrus-king.html.
3
Peter J. Miano, “Mainstream Christian Zionism,” in Prophetic Voices on Middle East Peace: A Jewish, Christian,
and Humanist Primer on Colonialism, Zionism, and Nationalism in the Middle East, ed.Thomas E. Phillips, Peter J.
Miano, Jason Mitchell, 163-186 (Claremont, CA: Claremont Press, 2016), 165.
2
�Winton 2
Truman displayed their Christian Zionist beliefs, connecting their personal religious views to
their political duties as President of the United States. Christian Zionism, with its theological
foundation of dispensationalism and its connection to American manifest destiny, served as a
driving force in the policy decisions of President Woodrow Wilson and President Harry Truman
immediately following the two World Wars.
Since its introduction to America in the mid-nineteenth century, Christian Zionism has
created a situation in which politics and religion intersect and collide in complicated ways. The
theological foundation of Christian Zionism has permeated American religious, cultural, and
political life in numerous ways, from integrating into America’s existing evangelical Protestant
tradition to supporting the belief in America’s divinely granted manifest destiny. By the twentieth
century, Christian Zionism became so ingrained in American political life that it even affected
America’s highest positions of leadership, creating circumstances in which policy decisions were
directly influenced and driven by the personal religious beliefs of political leaders. In fact, the
emphasis on interweaving theology and politics allows for religiously devout individuals
occupying the highest political offices in the United States, including the presidency, to use their
position as political leaders to further their religious agenda.
Christian Zionism, because of its heavy focus on Biblical literalism and fundamentalism,
is generally associated with Christians from the “Christian right.” These Christian Zionists are
the easiest to identify because they are often the most vocal and most visible in displaying their
opinions.4 However, for scholars like Peter J. Miano and Rosemary Radford Reuther, associating
Christian Zionism exclusively with fundamentalist and conservative Christians is dangerous as it
ignores the fact that the majority of Christian Zionists belong to mainstream branches of
4
Miano, “Mainstream Christian Zionism,” 171.
�Winton 3
Christianity.5 As Miano points out, Christianity as a religious tradition, whether mainstream or
not, both directly and indirectly engages in promoting the Zionist narrative in some capacity.6
Additionally, as Reuther discusses, Christian Zionism so deeply entwined with Western Christian
imperialism towards the Middle East and America’s self-identification as a nation blessed by
God that it has pervaded even the most liberal of Protestant denominations.7 Indeed, neither
Woodrow Wilson nor Harry S. Truman belonged to “fringe” Christian denominations: Wilson
was a Presbyterian and Truman was a Baptist, yet both of them became dedicated to the
Christian Zionist cause through their mainstream Protestant religious beliefs.
Similarly, there is a propensity to dismiss those who believe in Biblical literalism or
Fundamentalist Christianity as unintelligent and uneducated. This is certainly true in the case of
Harry S. Truman. As Gary Scott Smith points out, scholars often cite Truman’s religious rhetoric
and biblically influenced approach to public policy as crude, misguided, and simplistic.8 That
and his vulgar mouth and brash nature got him branded as an unintelligent religious fanatic.9 In
reality, Truman was an incredibly well-read and intelligent man. Scholars like Paul C. Merkley
discuss how he regularly read a wide range of newly published books from academic historians,
including biographies, narrative histories, and American political and military histories.10
Truman’s interpretation of the Bible might have been a fundamentalist one, but he genuinely
believed that it was the correct interpretation based on his extensive study and reading on the
topic and this interpretation served as the foundation for his policies and decisions as president.11
5
Miano, “Mainstream Christian Zionism,” 164; Rosemary Radford Reuther, “Christian Zionism and Mainline
Western Christian Churches,” in Comprehending Christian Zionism: Perspectives in Comparison, ed. Gӧran Gunner
and Robert O. Smith, 179-190 (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2014), 179.
6
Miano, “Mainstream Christian Zionism,” 172.
7
Reuther, “Christian Zionism and Mainline Western Christian Churches,” 179.
8
Gary Scott Smith, Religion in the Oval Office: The Religious Lives of American Presidents (Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press, 2015), 230.
9
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 229.
10
Paul C. Merkley, The Politics of Christian Zionism, 1891-1948 (London, England: Routledge, 1998), 165.
11
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 229.
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Moreover, Truman was essentially an outsider to America’s political scene when he
became President of the United States; he was born, raised, and lived his entire adult life in
Missouri before becoming a Missouri State Senator. His lack of college education, his
Midwestern background, his brash nature, and his use of religious rhetoric set him apart from his
elite East Coast counterparts, in particular the staff, cabinet members, and advisors he inherited
from President Roosevelt when he died. For Truman, being a political outsider meant that it was
his duty as President of the United States to lead the country into a new political age free of
corruption, complacency, and elitism, part of which included restoring the Jewish people to the
Holy Land. Contrastingly, Wilson was also a political outsider with no elite East Coast heritage,
but he did not face the same ostracization that Truman did as President of the United States
because of his educational background and career path. Wilson was educated at Princeton and
Johns Hopkins, taught at numerous East Coast colleges and universities, became the President of
Princeton University, and eventually was the Governor of New Jersey before becoming President
of the United States. He was well-established within the elite atmosphere of the East Coast and
America’s political scene and he was able to mask his Southern background much more easily
than Truman due to his educational training and professional life. However, this assimilation into
America’s elite East Coast society and political scene did not alter Wilson’s religious beliefs, as
indicated by his actions as president to help restore the Jewish people to the Holy Land.
Recognizing these three points ‒ that Christian Zionism is not exclusively associated with
the “Christian right,” that adherence to Biblical literalism and Fundamentalist Christianity does
not inherently mean one is unintelligent or uneducated, and that their respective statuses as
non-East Coast political outsiders influenced Wilson and Truman to take actions to help restore
the Jewish people to the Holy Land ‒ is imperative for understanding the influence Christian
�Winton 5
Zionism has had in American politics. Both Woodrow Wilson and Harry S. Truman were
members of mainstream Protestant Christian denominations, and they were both intelligent,
well-read men. And yet, they both strongly believed in the Christian Zionist cause and
perpetuated it throughout their respective tenures as President of the United States. Clearly,
Christian Zionism is more than just a political movement belonging to a specific sector of the
“Christian right.” It is something that encompasses mainstream American Protestant theological
beliefs, American patriotism and national pride, and American national politics, influencing
those in even the highest of governmental offices.
Christian Zionism, simply defined, is the belief held by Christians that the return of the
Jewish people to the Holy Land is in accordance with Biblical prophecy.12 Whereas Jewish
Zionists called for the restoration of the Jewish people in the Holy Land and the establishment of
a Jewish homeland for nationalistic and political reasons, Christian Zionists are more religiously
motivated. They see the establishment of a Jewish homeland as a necessary step in God’s plan
for the salvation of humanity, one which will fulfill Biblical prophecy and allow Jesus Christ to
return to Earth and save the true believers.13 Christian Zionism originated in England in the
seventeenth century, and prior to the development of the modern Jewish Zionist movement, it
was known as Christian Restorationism. For the British, restoring the Jewish people to the Holy
Land was tied to imperial motivations and to their desire to create a Christian empire in the
Middle East under their patronage.14 English Puritans identified Britain as an elect nation, one
chosen by God to fulfill his will on Earth.15 Since Biblical Israel had previously held this position
as God’s elect nation, the British saw themselves as spiritual descendants of the Israelites and
12
John J. Mearsheimer and Stephen M. Walt, The Israel Lobby and US Foreign Policy (New York, NY: Farrar,
Straus, and Giroux, 2007), 107.
13
Miano, “Mainstream Christian Zionism,”164.
14
Reuther, “Christian Zionism and Mainline Western Christian Churches,” 180.
15
Reuther, “Christian Zionism and Mainline Western Christian Churches,” 180.
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believed it was their divinely given right to help establish God’s Kingdom here on Earth.16 This
belief intensified with the development of dispensationalism in the 1830s by a group known as
the Plymouth Brethren. The Plymouth Brethren was a group of individuals who broke from the
Church of England over a list of grievances which has since been lost.17 This group was deeply
interested in Biblical prophecy and believed that the Bible pointed to future events scheduled to
take place prior to Christ’s return to Earth.18 John Nelson Darby, a member of the Plymouth
Brethren, was the group’s most gifted Bible teacher and introduced new elements of Biblical
interpretation that sought to present the complexities and contradictions of the Bible as coherent
and consistent revelations to God’s plan for humanity.19
While Christian advocacy for the restoration of the Jewish people to the Holy Land was
an established theological belief system, it gained political traction with the rise of Jewish
nationalism. In the mid-nineteenth century, Jews in Europe began assimilating and adapting to
the dominant cultures of their countries in an attempt to fight antisemetism.20 However, towards
the end of the century, a new wave of antisemitism swept over Europe and Jews began to call
into question their assimilationist sentiments and tactics.21 The late nineteenth century saw the
rise of various nationalist movements, from ethnic nationalism to cultural nationalism, and for
the European Jews facing conflict in their home countries, their Jewish identity became the
foundation for their own form of nationalism.22 With the publication of Der Judenstaat, a
pamphlet written in 1896 by a Jewish Austro-Hungarian journalist named Theodor Herzl, the
16
Reuther, “Christian Zionism and Mainline Western Christian Churches,” 181.
Timothy P. Weber, On the Road to Armageddon: How Evangelicals Became Israel's Best Friend (Grand Rapids,
MI: Baker Academic, 2004), 19.
18
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 20.
19
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 20.
20
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 97.
21
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 97.
22
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 97.
17
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modern Zionist movement was born.23 In Der Judenstaat, Herzl argues that, for the safety of the
Jewish people and to prevent worsening antisemitism, an independent Jewish state must be
created. For the global Jewish community, the rise of Zionism signaled a desire to mobilize and
fight against anti-Jewish sentiments. However, for Christian Zionists, the rise of Zionism was a
sign from God that the time for fulfilling his theological timeline had come.
The theological foundation of Christian Zionism, known as dispensationalism, is steeped
in Biblical literalism, prophetic interpretation, and belief in the apocalypse. It is a form of
premillennial futurism, an end-times view of Christianity that unflinchingly interprets portions of
certain books, specifically the Books of Ezekiel, Daniel, and Revelation, as the events scheduled
to take place before Christ’s return.24 Dispensationalism combines the eschatological view that
fulfilling Biblical prophecy necessitates Jesus’ Second Coming with dispensationalism’s specific
theological perception of time.25 It states that all of history can be divided into dispensations;
according to C.I. Schofield, a prominent American dispensationalist and author of the popular
Scofield Reference Bible, a dispensation is “a period of time during which man is tested in
respect of obedience to some specific revelation of the will of God.”26 During each dispensation,
God shares a specific revelation of divine will or a distinctive administrative principle, and
humanity is responsible for following that will or principle.27 Christian Zionists believe that God
reveals his plan for humanity subtly; God expects that humanity will recognize the signs He is
presenting to them and will act upon them to fulfill His will.28 Traditionally, dispensationalists
23
Paul C. Merkley, “Zionists and Christian Restorationists,” Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies 3
(1993): 94.
24
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 20.
25
Mearsheimer and Walt, The Israel Lobby, 132.
26
C.I. Scofield, ed., The Scofield Reference Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 1909), 5.
27
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 20.
28
Sean Durbin, “Walking in the Mantle of Esther: "Political" Action as "Religious" Practice,” in Comprehending
Christian Zionism: Perspectives in Comparison, ed. Gӧran Gunner and Robert O. Smith, 85-124 (Minneapolis, MN:
Fortress Press, 2014), 93.
�Winton 8
believe that there are anywhere from three to eight dispensations, depending on how they
interpret Biblical history. However, regardless of how many disputed dispensations there are,
dispensationalists believe overwhelmingly that we as a human race are currently living in the last
dispensation of the Book of Revelation.29
To dispensationalists, the Bible is meant to be interpreted literally, particularly in regards
to its prophetic revelations.30 Dispensationalists view the Old and New Testament prophecies in
which Jesus’ return is foretold as literal indications as to what must happen in order to catalyze
his Second Coming.31 The Bible, therefore, serves as a text “progressive revelation” wherein
people can understand the flow and development of God’s ways in the world over time through
studying it.32 The strongest focus of dispensationalists in regards to fulfilling Biblical prophecy is
the return of the Jewish people to the Holy Land. Dispensationalists believe that the Jewish
people are God’s chosen people, and through his solemn covenants with them, God attempted to
enact his godly plan for his earthly people.33 For example, with the Abrahamic Covenant in
Genesis 12:1-3 God promises to bless Abraham and all his descendants in return for Abraham’s
unconditional faith in God’s power, whereas with the Davidic Covenant in 2 Samuel 7:16 God
establishes David and his descendants as the kings of Israel and promises that the restoration of
Israel will occur with the coming of one of David’s descendants, the Messiah.34 However,
dispensationalists, like many Christians, believe that the Jewish people failed to follow God’s
will when they rejected Jesus Christ as their Messiah.35 This rejection of Jesus as the Messiah
effectively suspended the prophetic timeline within the Bible, and it is only with the return of the
29
Rammy M. Haija, “The Armageddon Lobby: Dispensationalist Christian Zionism and the Shaping of US Policy
Towards Israel-Palestine,” Holy Land Studies 5, no. 1 (2006): 80.
30
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 21.
31
Mearsheimer and Walt, The Israel Lobby, 132.
32
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 20.
33
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 21, 96.
34
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 21.
35
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 97.
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Jewish people to the Holy Land that the prophetic timeline will resume and Jesus can return.36
The Christian Church, according to dispensationalists, was created by God during this time of
suspended prophecy to help continue God’s work on Earth, namely returning the Jewish people
to the Holy Land and restoring the prophetic timeline.37 The Jewish people, therefore become
integral figures in fulfilling Biblical prophecy, as their sacred covenants with God signal their
status as his chosen people and their return to the Holy Land is necessary in order to catalyze
Jesus Christ's return to Earth.
Understanding the theology of dispensationalism is important to understanding the
complex relationship between the dispensationalist religious theology and the political elements
of the Christian Zionist movement. Dispensationalism is the religious foundation for Christian
Zionism, and Christian Zionism gives dispensationalist theology relevance as it serves as the
political movement that satisfies the theological timeline dictated in dispensationalist doctrine.38
Dispensationalism can stand on its own as a religious belief system, as evident in the centuries
between the Protestant Reformation and the development of modern Jewish Zionism in which
dispensationalists called for the restoration of the Jewish people in the Holy Land. However,
Christian Zionism as a political movement provides a necessary contextualization that connects
Biblical prophecy with current socio-political situations.39 To dispensationalists, the mobilization
of Jewish people through the Zionist movement was one of God’s signs signaling what he
expected humanity to accomplish in this dispensation, and Christian Zionism became the
political vehicle through which dispensationalists could accomplish this divine mission. Thus,
politics became reconstituted as a form of religious practice, allowing dispensationalists to
36
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 97.
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 97.
38
Haija, “The Armageddon Lobby,” 93; Mearsheimer and Walt, The Israel Lobby, 138.
39
Durbin, “Walking in the Mantle of Esther,” 93.
37
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spread their beliefs and accomplish God’s will through political activism and action, and Wilson
and Truman both exemplify this.40
Woodrow Wilson’s personal religious beliefs strongly influenced his politics during his
tenure as President of the United States. He was brought up in a strong Presbyterian household,
and was descended from a long line of scholars and Presbyterian preachers.41 Wilson’s father, a
Presbyterian minister, believed in the power of education, raising his children in a pious and
bookish home with an emphasis on the learning of theology, moral philosophy, literature, and the
sciences.42 Thus, Wilson became powerfully devoted to religion beginning at a young age,
reading the Bible every day and being active in his church.43 It is this devotion to religion and
strong educational background in theology, philosophy, and literature that helped drive Wilson’s
dedication to the Christian Zionist movement. According to Dr. Cary T. Grayson, Wilson’s close
friend, political advisor, and personal physician, Wilson’s religious convictions directly
influenced how he governed as President of the United States. In a statement written the day
Wilson died in 1924, Grayson stated that:
Wilson did not parade his religion. He lived it…[He] conceived the Christian Life as a
process and development of character in accordance with the teachings of Christ...he
understood personal religion as a matter of the heart but tempered by reflection and
judgement and fixed purpose...The bulk of Mr. Wilson’s Christianity was in practice -not talk.44
Wilson’s actions as president and the decisions he made, for both domestic and foreign policy,
were affected by his personal religious beliefs, as he saw political action to be a truer form of
Christianity than just practicing the religion in a church.
40
Durbin, “Walking in the Mantle of Esther,” 110.
Lawrence Davidson, “Christian Zionism as a Representation of American Manifest Destiny,” Critique: Critical
Middle Eastern Studies 14, no. 2 (2005): 163; Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 79.
42
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 79.
43
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 79.
44
Cary T. Grayson, “The Religion of Woodrow Wilson,” February 3, 1924, 13, 16, 20,
http://presidentwilson.org/items/show/22351.
41
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As president, Wilson relied on God’s power and guidance, as well as his belief in the
Bible as the word of God. In a 1918 letter responding to Thomas F. Logan, a constituent
expressing fear after progressives and Democrats lost their political seats in the midterm election,
Wilson wrote that,
I am of course disturbed by the result of Tuesday’s elections, because they create
obstacles to the settlement of many difficult questions which throng so on every side, but
I have an implicit faith in Divine Providence and I am sure that by one means of another
the great thing we have to do will work itself out.45
He believed that, despite all that happened, God had a plan for humanity and God would guide
him as President of the United States. Wilson likewise saw the Bible as a source of inspiration
and manifestation of God’s power and guidance. In 1911, while he was the governor of New
Jersey and was beginning to set the stage for his campaign for president, Wilson gave a speech in
Denver, Colorado to celebrate the tercentenary celebration of the Bible being translated into
English in which he connected political progress to the Bible as the word of God. He proclaimed,
“Let no man suppose that progress can be divorced from religion, or that there is any other
platform for the ministers of reform than the platform written in the utterances of our Lord and
Savior.”46 For Wilson, political action was directly tied to religious devotion, and the Bible
served as a manual of divine revelation upon which he could base his political policies.
Wilson likewise saw a direct correlation between religious faith and public morality. He
perceived history to be a story of progress that leads to the betterment of society.47 During World
War I, one such way Wilson promoted this mentality was through his food rationing program. In
his 1917 press release encouraging American citizens to ration their food to send to Europe,
45
Woodrow Wilson, Letter to Thomas F. Logan, November 8, 1918, http://presidentwilson.org/items/show/27605.
Woodrow Wilson, “The Bible and Progress,” Denver, CO, May 7, 1911, 7,
http://frontiers.loc.gov/service/gdc/scd0001/2012/20120129002bi/20120129002bi.pdf.
47
Cara Lee Burnidge, A Peaceful Conquest: Woodrow Wilson, Religion, and the New World Order (Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press, 2016), 2.
46
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Wilson directly tied this act of public morality with religious actions like sacrifice and devotion,
stating:
Our country...is blessed with an abundance of foodstuffs...To provide an adequate supply
of food for both our own soldiers on the other side of the seas and for the civil
populations and the armies of the Allies is one of our first and foremost obligations...The
solution of our food problems, therefore, is dependent upon the individual service of
every man, woman and child in the United States...We cannot accomplish our objects in
this great way without sacrifice and devotion, and no direction can that sacrifice and
devotion be shown more than by each home and public eating place in the country
pledging its support to the Food Administration and complying with its requests.48
According to Wilson, because of its covenant-like relationship with God and the blessings He
regularly bestows upon the nation, America is meant to fulfill its divinely ordained destiny
through political action that promotes public morality and social justice.49
Like Wilson, Harry S. Truman’s personal religious beliefs strongly influenced his politics
during his tenure as President of the United States. As a child, Truman was raised in a deeply
religious family that based their familial guidelines directly on Biblical scripture.50 Like Wilson,
Truman was educated beginning at an early age, and much of his educational upbringing
revolved around his Baptist faith. He regularly recounted how that, by the age of fifteen, he had
read the Bible in its entirety twelve times, that he “never cared much for fairy stories or Mother
Goose” because the “stories in the Bible...were to [him] about real people, and [he] felt [he]
knew some of them better than actual people [he] knew.”51 For Truman, the Bible was a source
of strength, inspiration, and historical record.52 Through his religious upbringing and reverence
for the Bible, he formed most of his ideas about the world early on and believed that the stories
in the Bible were meant to serve as records of the past and prophetic revelations about the
48
Woodrow Wilson, “Food Administration,” Press Statement, October 27, 1917,
http://presidentwilson.org/items/show/34084.
49
Burnidge, A Peaceful Conquest, 2.
50
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 229.
51
Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (New York: Berkeley, 1974), 31.
52
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 234.
�Winton 13
future.53 These religious convictions followed him throughout his life, even when he became
President of the United States after Franklin D. Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945. Truman
attributed much of his success in life and politics to God’s power and will, stating,
Luck always seems to be with me in games of change and in politics. No one was ever
luckier than I’ve been since becoming the Chief Executive and Commander in Chief.
Things have gone so well that I can’t understand it -- except to attribute it to God. He
guides me, I think.54
Truman saw his life as being guided by God’s divine will, particularly in regard to his political
career as a Missouri State Senator, the Vice President of the United States under Roosevelt, and
the President of the United States.
Like Wilson, Truman saw a direct link between religious faith and public morality, and he
strongly believed that Christians should live their faith through tangible action based on religious
values and scripture.55 He believed that Exodus 20 (the Ten Commandments) and Matthew 5-7
(the Sermon on the Mount), were the best system of philosophy to adhere to as well as the most
fundamentally sound moral code for public servants to base their policies on.56 In his radio
address during the 1949 nationwide, interfaith campaign, “Religion in American Life,” Truman
proclaimed that America must follow its religious convictions as a nation because:
[The] faith that inspires us to work for a world in which life will be more worthwhile -- a
world of tolerance, unselfishness, and brotherhood -- a world that lives according to the
precepts of the Sermon on the Mount...every problem in the world today could be solved
if men would only live by the principles of the ancient prophets and the Sermon on the
Mount…Religious faith and religious work must be our reliance as we strive to fulfill our
destiny in the world.57
53
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 234.
R.H. Ferrell, ed., Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman (New York, NY: Harper and Row,
1980), 37-38.
55
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 160; Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 232.
56
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 234.
57
Harry Truman, "Radio Address as Part of the Program 'Religion in American Life,'" October 30, 1949,
https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/radio-address-part-the-program-religion-american-life.
54
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According to Truman, political decisions should be based on the transcendent moral standards
written in Biblical scripture.58 Just a few months later, in December of 1949 at a public unveiling
of the memorial carillon at Arlington National Cemetery, Truman reiterates this link between
religion and public morality. He proudly proclaimed, “We have created here a government
dedicated to the dignity and the freedom of man. It is a government whose creed is derived from
the word of God...As long as this Government remains rooted in the dignity of man and in his
kinship with God, freedom will prevail.”59 For Truman, America’s Christian heritage should be
reflected in its politics, serving as the moral standard not only for citizens of the United States
but citizens of the world.
Christian Zionism’s history in America reflects this belief held by both Wilson and
Truman that America’s Christian heritage and religious values should be displayed in public
political action. Moreover, it is an excellent example of how interconnected religion and politics
are within America. While the belief that the restoration of the Jewish people to the Holy Land
was necessary for the salvation of humanity had existed in America since the Puritans arrived in
the seventeenth century, dispensationalism as a theological belief system was officially
introduced to America in the 1870s when John Nelson Darby, its creator, visited America just
after the Civil War.60 Throughout the late nineteenth century, Darby visited America multiple
times in hopes of sharing his dispensationalist teachings and gaining support for his Biblical
theological framework.61 However, initially, American reception to dispensationalism was
negative. Many, particularly those in elite religious circles, saw it as a serious departure from
58
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 148.
Harry S. Truman, “Address at the Unveiling of a Memorial Carillon in Arlington National Cemetery,” Arlington,
VA, December 21, 1949,
https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-unveiling-memorial-carillon-arlington-national-cemetery.
60
Reuther, “Christian Zionism and Mainline Western Churches,” 183; Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 26.
61
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 26.
59
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traditional Biblical scholarship and historic interpretations of the Bible.62 James H. Snowden, a
priest and opponent of dispensationalism, voiced some of the issues American priests and
religious scholars saw with dispensationalist theology, stating,
[Premillenarianism] violates the principle of historic interpretation by tearing passages
out of their context and imposing on them meanings that they do not bear in their original
connection...Premillenarians give a literal interpretation to all the Old Testament
prophecies of the coming messianic kingdom, though this requires them to believe that
the whole world (“all flesh”) shall go up to Jerusalem every week in the millennium…[It]
is extremely selective in its treatment of Scripture. It picks out the passages that suit its
theory and passes over what does not fit in with it.63
Despite these grievances with dispensationalism, it quickly became a prominent theological
belief system in America, due in part to the socio-political circumstances surrounding its
development in the United States.
Immediately following the Civil War, America’s religious institutions faced a period of
conflict, realignment, reorganization, and aimlessness. The Civil War and its aftermath had
shaken people’s faith in religion, just as it had shaken people’s faith in America’s democratic
system.64 The rise of urban living, massive influx of immigration from “ethnic” non-Protestant
European countries like Italy and Ireland, and the country’s rapid industrialization likewise
threatened America’s established evangelical Protestant Christian tradition, as did the
introduction of concepts like the theory of evolution, comparative religion, and the higher
criticism of the Bible.65 In short, America’s evangelical Protestant communities were facing a
crisis: should they attempt to redefine their belief systems in terms that are more compatible with
the modern ways of thinking, or should they continue on with their faith as it’s been traditionally
preached and practiced? Liberal evangelical Protestants chose to modernize, affirming the
62
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon 27.
James H. Snowden, "Summary of Objections to Premillenarianism," Biblical World 53 (1919): 166
64
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 30.
65
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 30.
63
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uniqueness of Jesus and the special nature of the Bible as a source of divine revelation while still
allowing for scientific and academic scrutiny.66
For conservative evangelical Protestants, however, this modernization of faith stripped
the spiritual power of Christ’s message. Interpreting the Bible in a novel way to encompass
modern issues like scientific inquiry and scholarly criticism to conservative evangelical
Protestants rendered the Bible itself useless: if God’s word as written in the Bible was
incompatible with modern life, then the implication is that God is fallible and capable of making
mistakes.67 The literal interpretation the Bible and its meaning was of the utmost importance to
establishing the supremacy of the Bible as God’s word, and thus conservative evangelical
Protestants saw their conflict with their liberal counterparts as a mission sent to them by God,
one in which their task was to battle against the heretics attempting to alter God’s mission.68 To
win this battle, mainstream conservative evangelical Protestants formed a trans-denominational
coalition, one which included the previously ostracized dispensationalists.69 Dispensationalists
quickly became a dominant force in the leadership of this coalition, because their theology
affirmed everything the mainstream conservative evangelical Protestants wished to affirm: the
authority of the Bible and its centering in Christ, the absolute necessity of one’s personal
conversion to Christ, importance of the Holy Spirit in the life of the church and the individual
believer, the justification by faith alone, and the final separation of all people for eternal life or
damnation.70 According to William Bell Riley, a Baptist preacher known as “The Grand Old Man
of Fundamentalism,” dispensationalism became “the sufficient if not solitary antidote to the
present apostasy.”71 As a result, dispensationalist theology, specifically its focus on Biblical
66
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 31.
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon 31.
68
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 31.
69
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 31.
70
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 32.
71
William Bell Riley, The Evolution of the Kingdom (New York: Charles C. Cook, 1913), 5.
67
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literalism and prophetic interpretation, began to insert itself into the dominant mainstream
Christian denominations. This is certainly true for both the Presbyterian faith, of which Woodrow
Wilson belonged, and the Baptist faith of Harry S. Truman. Its transition into the dominant
mainstream theological belief system was fairly simple, mostly because dispensationalists
meshed well with America’s established religious and cultural identities, namely America’s
belief in its own manifest destiny.72
The concept of American manifest destiny emerged in the nineteenth century as America
began establishing itself as an imperial power, both at home and abroad. John L. O’Sullivan,
editor of The United States Magazine and Democratic Review, is often the person credited with
coming up with defining the term in his 1839 piece “The great nation of futurity.” According to
O’Sullivan, “America is destined for better deeds…destined to manifest to mankind the
excellence of divine principles; to establish on earth the noblest temple ever dedicated to the
worship of the Most High -- the Sacred and the True.”73 America is “the nation of progress, of
individual freedom, of universal enfranchisement” and it is its destiny as a nation to “establish on
earth the moral dignity and salvation of man -- the immutable truth and beneficence of God”
through its imperial endeavors.74 This concept of American manifest destiny influenced the
United States’ political and cultural lives, but it also heavily influenced its religious life.
America’s belief in its own divinely ordained destiny is a major factor why dispensationalism,
and later Christian Zionism, became so infused in American evangelical Protestant culture.
Christian Zionists support Jewish restoration to the Holy Land almost by any means necessary,
using parallel ideas of American patriotism and triumph as the framework with which to justify
72
Reuther, “Christian Zionism and Mainline Western Christian Churches,” 184.
John L. O’Sullivan, “The great nation of futurity,” The United States Democratic Review 6, no. 23 (1839): 427.
74
O’Sullivan, “The great nation of futurity,” 429-430.
73
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America’s support of the Jewish homeland.75 Just as America believed their political destiny was
divinely granted, so did they believe their religious destiny was divinely granted. Both Woodrow
Wilson and Harry S. Truman believed that America’s political manifest destiny was divinely
ordained by God, and they regularly used religious rhetoric to express this belief.
Wilson’s personal religious beliefs deeply influenced how he viewed America and its
national destiny. Even before he was president, Wilson believed that America was divinely
blessed by God to be the purveyor of his will on Earth. In 1911 at the aforementioned celebration
for the English translation of the Bible in Denver, Wilson stated,
America is not ahead of other nations of the world because she is rich. Nothing makes
America great except her thoughts, except her ideals, except her acceptance of those
standards of judgement which are written large upon these pages of revelation. America
has all along claimed the distinction of setting this example to the civilized
world...America was born a Christian nation. America was born to exemplify that
devotion to the elements of righteousness which are derived from the revelations of Holy
Scripture.76
Wilson’s belief in America’s divinely ordained political destiny was only heightened during
World War I. America’s success in helping its European allies defeat their enemies was,
according to Wilson, indicative of God’s special relationship with America. In a press statement
declaring a day of prayer in May of 1918, Wilson discussed that God’s “blessings on our arms”
will bring about a “speedy restoration of an honorable man and lasting peace to the nations of the
earth.”77 Similar sentiments are seen in Wilson’s press statement in November 1919 proclaiming
a day of thanksgiving. Wilson states that:
The Season of the year has again arrived when the people of the United States are
accustomed to unite in giving thanks to Almighty God for the blessings which He has
conferred upon our country during the twelve months that have passed. A year ago our
75
Mae Elise Cannon, “Mischief Making in Palestine: American Protestant Christian Attitudes toward the Holy
Land, 1917-1949,” in Comprehending Christian Zionism: Perspectives in Comparison, edited by Gӧran Gunner and
Robert O. Smith, 231-255 (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2014), 236.
76
Wilson, “The Bible and Progress,” 5, 7.
77
Woodrow Wilson, “Day of Prayer Declared,” Press Statement, May 11, 1918,
http://presidentwilson.org/items/show/34288.
�Winton 19
people poured out their hearts in praise and thanksgiving that through divine aid the right
was victorious and peace had come to nations which had so courageously struggled in
defense of human liberty and justice...These great blessings...should arouse us to a fuller
sense of our duty to ourselves and to mankind.78
To Wilson, American exceptionalism both prior to and after the war was the result of Providence,
the creation of God’s design to fulfill God’s will.79 He saw democracy as a form of government
that is based on God’s order and that reflects a social gospel that must be spread domestically
and internationally.80
Wilson perceived the end of World War I to be America’s opportunity to build its empire,
exerting its influence internationally by supporting rebuilding nations and offering spiritual
guidance.81 In his 1920 State of the Union speech, Wilson expresses this, proclaiming,
I found my thought dominated by an immortal sentence of Abraham Lincoln’s -- “Let us
have faith that right makes might, and in that faith let us dare to do our duty as we
understand it”...I believe that I express the wish and purpose of every thoughtful
American when I say that this sentence marks for us in the plainest manner the part we
should play alike in the arrangement of our domestic affairs and in our exercise of
influence upon the affairs of the world…[t]his is the mission upon which Democracy
came into the world...This is the time of all others when Democracy should prove its
purity and its spiritual power to prevail. It is surely the manifest destiny of the United
States to lead in the attempt to make this spirit prevail.82
Not only was America’s help necessary for helping the world to move on from the aftermaths of
the Great War, but it was preordained according to its God-given political destiny that America
and American ideals such as democracy would prevail.
Truman likewise believed the United States had a divinely ordained destiny, to serve as
the creator of a free world and the protector of democracy.83 To Truman, American democracy
78
Woodrow Wilson, “Thanksgiving Day Proclaimed,” Press Statement, November 5, 1919,
http://presidentwilson.org/items/show/34322.
79
Burnidge, A Peaceful Conquest, 2.
80
Burnidge, A Peaceful Conquest, 3.
81
Burnidge, A Peaceful Conquest, 1.
82
Woodrow Wilson, 8th State of the Union Message, December 7, 1920,
https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/state-of-the-union-address-109/.
83
Davidson, “Christian Zionism as a Representation of American Manifest Destiny,” 163; Merkley, Politics of
Christian Zionism, 161.
�Winton 20
was a spiritual force that rested in God and Christian moral principles, and the American creed is
directly derived from the word of God.84 During his address for the aforementioned 1949
“Religion in American Life campaign, Truman stated that,
The United States has been a deeply religious Nation from its earliest
beginnings...Building on this foundation of faith, the United States has grown from a
small country in the wilderness to a position of great strength and great responsibility
among the family of nations.85
This responsibility of the United States is gifted by God, just as God gifted responsibilities and
obligations to the Biblical Israelites in his sacred covenants with them.86 And just like Biblical
Israel, America must follow God’s will and mission in order to fulfill their divine destiny.
Truman further expands on the divinely ordained responsibility and destiny of the United States
in a speech given during a church cornerstone laying in Washington D.C. in April of 1951:
Considering all the advantages that God has given us as a nation and all the mercies that
He has shown to us from our very beginnings, we ought to ask ourselves whether we
today are worthy of all that He has done for us. We ought to ask ourselves whether we, as
a people, are doing our part; whether we are carrying out our moral obligations. I do not
think that anyone can study the history of this Nation of ours -- study it deeply and
earnestly -- without becoming convinced that divine providence has played a great part in
it. I have the feeling that God has created us and brought us to our present position of
power and strength for some great purpose. And up to now we have been shirking it.
Now we are assuming it, and now we must carry it through.87
Thus, the fulfillment of God’s plan for humanity on Earth is directly tied to America’s God-given
political destiny.
Truman additionally called upon the established identification of the United States with
Biblical Israel to further support his claims of America’s divinely ordained destiny. In September
84
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 241.
Harry S. Truman, "Radio Address as Part of the Program 'Religion in American Life.'"
86
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 240.
87
Harry Truman, “Address at the Cornerstone Laying of the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church,” Washington,
D.C., April 3, 1951,
https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/68/address-cornerstone-laying-new-york-avenue-presbyterian-c
hurch.
85
�Winton 21
of 1951 in his address to the Washington Pilgrimage of American Churchmen in Washington
D.C., he stated that,
We cannot be satisfied with things as they are. We must always be striving to live up to
our beliefs and to make things better in accordance with the divine commandments. The
people of Israel, you will remember, did not, because of their covenant with God, have an
easier time than other nations. Their standards were higher than those of other nations
and the judgement upon them and their shortcomings was more terrible. A religious
heritage, such as ours, is not a comfortable thing to live with. It does not mean that we are
more virtuous than other people. Instead, it means that we have less excuse for doing the
wrong thing -- because we are taught right from wrong.88
To Truman, America like Biblical Israel has a special covenant with God, and this relationship
meant America was not only blessed by God but the nation also has a moral imperative to follow
God’s will and spread his teachings.89 In particular, Truman stressed this moral imperative in
regards to America’s spreading of democratic values, which he saw as a blessing from God,
internationally through its foreign policy. In 1952, at a celebration for the cornerstone laying of
the Westminster Presbyterian Church in Alexandria, Virginia, Truman spoke to this:
Democracy is first and foremost a spiritual force. It is built upon a spiritual basis -- and
on a belief in God and an observance of moral principles...In foreign affairs...the churches
should hold up the standard and point the way. The only hope of mankind for enduring
peace lies in the realm of the spiritual. The teachings of the Christian faith recognize the
worth of every human soul before Almighty God...We must try to find ways to carry
these spiritual concepts into the field of world relations...we are all our brothers’
keepers.90
Truman believed that the United States was destined by God to bring world peace because of its
democratic values based on its Christian heritage.91
For American Christian Zionists, no singular event signaled the time to fulfill their
national destiny and God’s will like World War I. The United States officially entered the war in
88
Harry S. Truman, “Address to the Washington Pilgrimage of American Churchmen,” Washington D.C., September
28, 1951, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-washington-pilgrimage-american-churchmen.
89
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 240.
90
Harry S. Truman, “Remarks in Alexandria, VA., at the Cornerstone Laying of the Westminster Presbyterian
Church,” Alexandria, VA, November 23, 1952,
https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-alexandria-va-the-cornerstone-laying-the-westminster-presbyt
erian-church.
91
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 151.
�Winton 22
April of 1917, and Americans saw their entrance as a major turning point in the war. More
specifically, however, American Christian Zionists saw the subsequent victories in the Middle
East after their entrance to the war as indicative of America’s divine political destiny in fulfilling
God’s will. Only six months after America entered the war, British forces invaded Palestine,
which caused the Ottomans to surrender the holy city of Jerusalem to the British.92 With the
Biblical land of milk and honey and the “shining city upon the hill” finally returned to a
Christian empire after centuries under control of the Muslims, the goal of restoring the Jewish
people to the Holy Land finally seemed achievable.93 Furthermore, with the issuance of the
Balfour Declaration in November of 1917, the British Empire officially proclaimed their
dedication to creating a Jewish homeland in Palestine, that “His Majesty’s Government view
with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use
their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object.”94
To American Christian Zionists, particularly those in the US government, this declaration
was a major step in the right direction. Speaker of the House Champ Clark, in an official
statement on Christmas Eve in 1917 just a month or so after the issuance of the Balfour
Declaration, stated that,
So far as war operations are concerned, the one thing that pleases most people most is the
capture of Jerusalem, “The Holy City.” That rejoices the hearts of Jews and Christians.
Whatever else results from this bloody and titanic struggle, Jerusalem will never again be
dominated by the Turks. After these hundreds of years the dream of Peter the Hermit,
Richard Coeur de Lion and their fellow crusaders is an accomplished fact; and good
people everywhere rejoice with exceeding great joy.95
92
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 109.
Lawrence Davidson, “The Past as Prelude: Zionism and the Betrayal of American Democratic Principles,
1917-1948,” Journal of Palestine Studies 31, no. 3 (2002): 21.
94
Arthur Balfour, Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, November 2, 1917,
https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/balfour.asp.
95
“Christmas Greetings from Officials; Wilson Looks Forward to Peace; Jerusalem Joy to Speaker Clark: “what is
Life without Liberty?” Asks Daniels -- Pan-American Sentiment from Naon -- Selectives’ Best Gift to Country is
Prompt Response to Questionnaire, Says Crowder.” The Washington Post, Dec. 24, 1917, 4.
93
�Winton 23
The fall of the Ottoman Empire coinciding with the Balfour Declaration was a sign for American
Christian Zionists that their time to restore the Biblical prophetic timeline.96 With Palestine and
Jerusalem finally back in control of a Christian nation and with America proving itself a major
global power, there seemed to be nothing stopping America from using its divinely-granted
political superiority to restore the Jewish people to the Holy Land. Such was the opinion of many
prominent politicians influenced by Christian Zionism, including President Woodrow Wilson.
Specifically in regards to the restoration of the Jewish people to the Holy Land, Wilson
saw everything happening at the end of World War I, from the fall of the Ottoman Empire in
Holy Land to the Balfour Declaration to America’s ability to turn the tide of the war, as a sign
that the time for America to fulfill God’s divine will had finally come. However, the Holy Land
was still under control of European imperial powers, specifically Britain and France, under the
mandate system.97 This prevented the United States from directly helping the Jewish people
return to Jerusalem, as allowing the Jewish people to create their own nation-state ran somewhat
counter to the British and French mandate system, which essentially was another form of
European imperialism.98 Wilson, dedicated to his mission to, as his close advisor Rabbi Stephen
Wise recounted in his autobiography, “help restore the Holy Land to its people…” decided to
work with the European powers instead of fight against them.99
To Wilson, the most efficient way to ensure the Jewish people would be restored to the
Holy Land was to ensure that larger, more powerful nations could not interfere with the affairs of
the Jewish state. Wilson recognized that the conflict of World War I was caused, at least in part,
by larger empires interfering with the wellbeing of small nations and ethnic groups. When the
96
Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 111.
Davidson, “The Past as Prelude,” 23.
98
Davidson, “The Past as Prelude,” 23.
99
Stephen Wise, Challenging Years (New York, NY: Putnam, 1949), 186-187.
97
�Winton 24
war began in 1914, Wilson confided in his friend Dr. Greyson that he believed, “patriotism must
no longer be a cloak for depredations on smaller nations...that between the nations there must be
a solemn league and covenant pledging all to the protection of the just rights of each and every
one.”100 The only way for the Jewish people to successfully be restored to the Holy Land and
bring about Christ’s return was for them to be independent and establish themselves as an
autonomous nation-state through self-determination. However, Wilson additionally recognized
that because of Britain and France’s influence in the region and America’s still-burgeoning
influence as a global power, he would not be able to single handedly restore the Jewish people.101
Wilson’s compromise to give America the opportunity to fulfill its divinely ordained
destiny and help restore the Jews while still allowing European empires to keep their mandates
was to create the League of Nations. In his 1919 speech explaining and defending the League of
Nations, commonly referred to as the “Pueblo Speech” for it was given in Pueblo, Colorado,
Wilson outlined exactly what the League hoped to accomplish in terms of allowing groups like
the Jewish people to establish themselves. He stated,
[These treaties] are based upon the purpose to see that every government dealt with in
this great settlement is put in the hands of the people and taken out of the hands of
coteries and of sovereigns who had no right to rule over the people. It is a people’s treaty,
that accomplishes by a great sweep of practical justice the liberation of men who never
could have liberated themselves, and the power of the most powerful nations has been
devoted not to their aggrandizement but to the liberation of people whom they could have
put under their control if they had chosen to do so...That is the fundamental principle of
this great settlement.102
Powerful nations like Britain, France, and America, thus, could use their influence to not rule
smaller nations or ethnic groups, but to help them realize their full potential as governing bodies.
100
Grayson, “The Religion of Woodrow Wilson,” 25-26.
Davidson, “The Past as Prelude,” 24.
102
Woodrow Wilson, “The Pueblo Speech,” Pueblo, CO, September 25, 1919,
https://voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/wilson-the-pueblo-speech-speech-text/.
101
�Winton 25
For the Jewish people, this meant the support from the British under the Balfour Declaration
could finally be acted upon through Wilson’s creation of the League of Nations. The League was
built upon American ideals and democratic values, declares Wilson later in the speech:
[T]he principle that America has always fought for, namely, the equality of
self-governing peoples...Let us accept what America has always fought for, and accept it
with pride that America showed the way and made the proposal. I do not mean that
America made the proposal in this particular instance; I mean that the principle was an
American principle, proposed by America. 103
It was through this intergovernmental organization, since Wilson based the League of Nations’
principles upon American ideals and convinced the other world powers to agree to its
stipulations and join, that he hoped to help restore the Jewish people to the homeland. The
various treaty agreements every nation must adhere to are even referred to as “covenants,”
furthering Wilson’s plan for fulfilling America’s divine destiny by tying the relationship between
large and small nations a covenantal one.104
Unfortunately for Wilson and his Christian Zionist aims, his plan to have America lead
the world in the League of Nations and restore the Jewish people to the Holy Land failed. He
presented the treaty to the Senate on July 10, 1919 in an address to the chamber; the Foreign
Relations Committee then held public hearings from July 31 to September 12.105 The Senate
began to consider the treaty on September 16, but by November 15 they voted to invoke cloture
and cut off the debate. The Senate eventually voted on the treaty to join the League of Nations on
March 19, 1920, falling short of the necessary two-thirds majority to win by just seven votes;
thus, Wilson could not join the organization he himself created to establish America as a global
power and help restore the Jewish people to the Holy Land.106 Additionally, Wilson suffered a
stroke in October of 1919, effectively incapacitating him and preventing him from doing many of
103
Wilson, “The Pueblo Speech.”
Wilson, “The Pueblo Speech.”
105
Davidson, “The Past as Prelude,” 23-24.
106
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 98.
104
�Winton 26
his presidential duties, including continuing to fight for the League of Nations. Dr. Grayson, his
friend, close advisor, and personal physician discussed the toll working on the League of Nations
took on Wilson in the statement he wrote the day Wilson died in 1924, stating,
As his physician I did all I could to persuade him to spare himself...but the sense of duty
was stronger in him than the sense of self-preservation...During the struggle over the
League of Nations and while he was a bed-ridden invalid, his fighting instinct remained
as strong as ever, and he struggled to have his way, which he was convinced was the right
way. He was still the fighting Christian. He believed that God would overrule all things
for good.107
Wilson, between his illness, his presidential term coming to an end, and the United States’
decision to not join the League of Nations, was unable to accomplish his Christian Zionist aims
as president.
While America as a nation was dedicated to the Christian Zionist movement during the
Wilson Administration, that support faltered once Wilson left office in 1921, gradually
decreasing throughout the 1920s and early 1930s.108 This occurred for a number of reasons. First,
the political scene after Wilson left office changed dramatically. The three presidents after
Wilson, Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover, all pursued “unilateral
internationalism” foreign policies; they refused to participate in the League of Nations or any
other collaborative responsibility and specifically designed their foreign policies to focus on
international economic opportunities for the United States.109 With Wilson out of office, the
Christian Zionists had lost their most powerful political supporter and it became difficult to
justify America’s involvement in helping to restore the Jewish people to the Holy Land when
America wasn’t involved in international politics or the League of Nations.110 Second, a new
wave of antisemitism occurred in the 1920s due to the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, the association
107
Grayson, “The Religion of Woodrow Wilson,” 27-28.
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 98, 114.
109
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 98.
110
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 114.
108
�Winton 27
of Jews with ethnic nationalism movements like the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and the
perpetuation of antisemitic stereotypes in major newspaper publications throughout the United
States. This new wave of antisemitism caused the more liberal evangelical Protestants who
originally embraced Wilson’s Christian Zionist policies and the Jewish Zionist movement to
revoke their support.111 Third, in addition to the new wave of antisemitism, in the 1920s there
was a corresponding rise in Christian fundamentalism and Biblical literalism. Since Christian
Fundamentalists still viewed the restoration of the Jewish people to the Holy Land as integral to
fulfilling Biblical prophecy regardless of any widespread antisemitism, this meant that the only
Christians still speaking zealously about establishing a Jewish homeland were increasingly fringe
conservative Christians with relatively little political power.112 These three aspects together
contributed to the faltering support of Americans to the Christian Zionist movement.
Just as World War I signaled a major turning point for Christian Zionism, so too was
World War II a generation later. The failure of the League of Nations to keep international peace
and America proving once again that it was a powerful global entity only fortified the belief
American Christian Zionists had of their own national superiority over other nations, particularly
Britain and France.113 With the Holy Land once again in chaos after the war due to the fights in
the Middle Eastern theater against fascist Italy, the United States believed that an independent
Jewish state would provide some much needed stability in the region by allowing the Jewish
people to return to the region gifted to them by God.114 But perhaps the most compelling reason
for the Christian Zionists to once again begin petitioning for the restoration of the Jews was the
Holocaust. With the slaughter of six million Jews, it became imperative for the Christian Zionists
111
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 114.
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 114.
113
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 98.
114
Reuther, “Christian Zionism and Mainline Western Christian Churches,” 184-185.
112
�Winton 28
to help the Jewish people establish their own independent nation so the end-times prophecy in
the Book of Revelation could be fulfilled before any more harm came to God’s chosen people.115
Compared to Wilson, Truman was much more vocal about his religious opinions and
beliefs, particularly in regard to his interest in restoring the Jewish people to the Holy Land. In
Merle Miller’s interviews with President Truman, from which an oral biography was published
in 1974, Truman reflected,
One of [my appointments]...was with Rabbi Wise. I saw him late that morning, and I was
looking forward to it because I knew he wanted to talk about Palestine, and that is one
part of the world that has always interested me, partly because of its Biblical background,
of course...it wasn’t just the Biblical part about Palestine that interested me. The whole
history of that area of the world is just about the most complicated and most interesting of
any area anywhere, and I have always made a careful study of it.116
Truman was not only religiously interested in subjects dealing with Palestine, the Middle East,
and the Holy Land, but he was also incredibly educated in the history and politics of the region
as well as Biblical scholarship and study.117 He believed this combination of religious interest and
historical, political, and philosophical education made him an expert.118 Not only did he believe
himself an expert, but he believed himself to be a modern incarnation of Cyrus, the Persian king
who freed the Jews from Babylon.119 In November 1953 on a visit to the Jewish Theological
Seminary in New York City, when introduced to the crowd as the man who “helped create the
State of Israel,” Truman replied: “What do you mean, ‘helped to create?’ I am Cyrus.” 120 To
Truman, he was called by God to restore the Jewish people to the Holy Land through his position
as President of the United States.
115
Mearsheimer and Walt, The Israel Lobby, 107; Reuther, “Christian Zionism and Mainline Western Christian
Churches,” 185.
116
Miller, Plain Speaking, 30-31, 32.
117
Davidson, “Christian Zionism as a Representation of American Manifest Destiny,” 163.
118
Davidson, “Christian Zionism as a Representation of American Manifest Destiny,” 163.
119
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 166.
120
Paul C. Merkley, American Presidents, Religion, and Israel: The Heirs of Cyrus (Westport, CT: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), vii.
�Winton 29
Truman, long before he became president, had his mind made up about using his platform
as an American politician to help restore the Jewish people to the Holy Land. During his time as
a Missouri Senator from 1934 to 1945, Truman was a member of the American Palestine
Committee, along with two-thirds of the American Senate. 121 The precursor to the American
Christian Palestine Committee, this committee was a political lobby group founded to influence
American foreign policy towards the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine.122 In
an address to Congress in 1939, Truman publicly denounced Britain for going back on the
promise it made in the Balfour Declaration to help create an independent Jewish state in
Palestine. He stated that, “[t]he British government has used its diplomatic umbrella again, this
time on Palestine. It has made a scrap of paper out of Lord Balfour’s promise to the Jews. It has
just added another to the long list of surrenders to Axis powers.” 123 Additionally, though
President Franklin Roosevelt made the decision not to establish an independent Jewish state until
after an Allied victory occurred, Truman continued his vocal and outspoken support for Christian
Zionism after he became Vice President in 1945.124
Regarding his Christian Zionist actions as president, Truman fortunately had the benefit
of historical hindsight. Truman saw Wilson as a Cyrus-figure, an inspiration and presidential
predecessor in terms of implementing Christian Zionist policies towards restoring the Jewish
people to the Holy Land.125 However, while Truman took inspiration from Wilson’s actions as
President of the United States, he recognized that ultimately Wilson failed to achieve his
Christian Zionist objective during his presidency.126 He expressed this sentiment in a speech he
gave in June of 1949 at the dedication of the World War Memorial Park in Little Rock, Arkansas:
121
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 156.
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 156.
123
Harry S. Truman, Congressional Record, 76 Cong., 1st sess., 1939, Vol. 84, pt. 13, Appendix, 2231.
124
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 157.
125
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 166.
126
Merkley, American Presidents, Religion, and Israel, viii.
122
�Winton 30
We entered the First World War to restore peace and to preserve human freedom; but
when that war was finished, we turned aside from the task we had begun. We turned our
backs upon the League of Nations...We ignored the economic problems of the world...We
let our domestic affairs fall into the hands of selfish interests. We failed to join with
others to take the steps which might have prevented a second world war...This time we
are fully aware of the mistakes that were made in the past. We are on guard against the
indifference and isolationism which can only lead to the tragedy of war...We have
assumed the responsibility which I believe God intended this great Republic to assume.127
Thoroughly convinced that Wilson’s failure indicated that he was the true American Cyrus,
Truman was determined to do everything he could to ensure that he restored the Jewish people to
the Holy Land by avoiding Wilson’s mistakes.
The plan for partitioning Palestine was passed by the United Nations General Assembly
on November 29, 1947 and six months later, on May 14, 1948, Israel’s provisional government
declared the creation of the State of Israel.128 That same day, President Truman officially
recognized the State of Israel, stating in a press release:
This Government has been informed that a Jewish state has been proclaimed in Palestine,
and recognition has been requested by the provisional Government thereof. The United
States recognizes the provisional government as the de facto authority of the new State of
Israel.129
Prior to this statement of recognition, Truman was warned by members of the State Department
that the United States should stay neutral.130 In fact, the State Department had been trying to
convince Truman that America should stay as neutral as possible since he became president after
Franklin Roosevelt’s death in April of 1945. Within the first three weeks of his presidency,
Truman was contacted by Secretary of State Edward Stettinius and the Under Secretary of State
127
Harry S. Truman, “Address in Little Rock at the Dedication of the World War Memorial Park,” Little Rock, AR,
June 11, 1949,
https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/120/address-little-rock-dedication-world-war-memorial-park.
128
Cannon, “Mischief Making in Palestine,” 233.
129
Harry S. Truman, “Recognition of Israel,” Press Release, May 14, 1948,
https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/draft-recognition-israel.
130
Davidson, “The Past as Prelude,” 33.
�Winton 31
Joseph Grew, both of whom implored the new president to not take drastic action in Palestine
with regards to establishing a Jewish state.131
Truman resented that other American government bureaucrats, whom he regularly
referred to as the “striped pants boys,” did not seem to recognize the importance of restoring the
Jewish people to the Holy Land.132 To Truman, America aiding in the restoration of the Jewish
people encompassed America’s political manifest destiny in bringing about world peace, its
obligation as a Christian nation to follow God’s will, and fulfilled Biblical prophecy.133 While his
advisors and other government officials might have claimed to be experts in United
States-Palestine foreign policy issues, Truman believed that his knowledge of the Bible and his
religious beliefs was more legitimate.134 In his interviews with Merle Miller and in his own
memoir, Truman expressed this frustration. To Miller, while reflecting on a conversation he had
with Rabbi Wise about his dedication to establishing a Jewish state, he proclaimed:
[A]s far as I was concerned, the United States would do all that it could to help the Jews
set up a homeland. I didn’t tell him that I’d already had a communication from some of
the “striped pants” boys warning me...in effect telling me to watch my step, that I didn’t
really understand what was going on over there and that I ought to leave it to the
experts.135
In his own memoir, Truman discusses that he “familiarized [himself] with the history of the
question of a Jewish homeland and the position of the British and the Arabs.” 136 He even
admitted to reading the “views and attitudes assumed by the ‘striped pants boys’ in the State
Department.”137 But ultimately, his religious convictions proved stronger than the advice and
131
Edward Stettinius, Letter to President Harry S. Truman, April 18, 1945,
https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/edward-stettinius-harry-s-truman; Joseph Grew, Memorandum
to President Harry S. Truman, May 1, 1945, 2,
https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/joseph-grew-harry-s-truman?documentid=NA&pagenumber=2.
132
Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 167.
133
Smith, Religion in the Oval Office, 152.
134
Davidson, “The Past as Prelude,” 33.
135
Miller, Plain Speaking, 33.
136
Harry S. Truman, Memoirs (Garden City, NY: Double Day, 1955-1956), vol. I, 84.
137
Truman, Memoirs, 1:84.
�Winton 32
expertise from the State Department and other officials. Truman genuinely believed that
restoring the Jewish people to the Holy Land was the crusade he was destined to lead as
President of the United States, and he was willing to ignore the advice of his advisors and other
government officials in order to make it happen.
For both Woodrow Wilson and Harry S. Truman, their Christian faith and belief in
Christian Zionism informed their understanding of politics and America’s role as a global power
in the aftermath of international conflict. They saw America as the nation manifestly destined to
lead the world into peace and prosperity after the chaos of the two World Wars, and it was their
duty as the most powerful men in the United States to help make that happen. However, the
historical contexts in which Wilson and Truman found themselves during their respective tenures
as President of the United States greatly affected their ability to achieve their goals. For Wilson
in the aftermath of the “Great War,” the first major global conflict on a massive scale, he thought
the best way for America to lead the world into peace and prosperity would be through the
League of Nations. With the European colonial powers still a global force with strongholds in the
Middle East, Wilson recognized that the only way for America to effectively help the Jewish
people return to the Holy Land would be through its participation in an international organization
of his own creation. Unfortunately for Wilson, he overestimated his own government’s desire to
become involved in international affairs and its desire to listen to a president nearing the end of
his second term. Moreover, Wilson’s own failing health at the end of his presidency prevented
him from advocating and lobbying more heavily for the League of Nations, and when he left
office the American government reverted to its pre-war self-isolationist tendencies.
For Truman, the socio-political circumstances after World War II were in his favor, thus
allowing him to achieve his Christian Zionist goals as President of the United States. The
�Winton 33
aftermath of World War II saw the world in an incredibly different place than at the end of World
War I, one in which European colonial powers were effectively disbanded and the mass genocide
of Holocaust proved the necessity of a secure homeland for the Jewish people. Moreover, with
the benefit of historical hindsight, Truman could follow the example of Wilson’s precedent while
altering his behavior to avoid making the same mistakes Wilson made as president. Truman saw
the difficulty Wilson had with getting the entirety of the American government to support his
desire to help the Jewish people, so he decided to take matters into his own hands without asking
for support in the first place. Truman believed that he became president through the grace of God
and to second-guess his position of power by referring to advisors, cabinet members, the Senate,
or the State Department is to second-guess God’s will.
Woodrow Wilson and Harry S. Truman were able to use their position as President of the
United States to perpetuate their Christian Zionist agenda, but they were by no means the only
ones in Washington D.C., or the entire nation for that matter, who believed America’s political
destiny was tied to the fulfillment of Biblical prophecy. Nor has such a connection between
American politics and Biblical prophecy ceased to exist since they left office. Even today, in
seemingly far less dire circumstances than helping to rebuild the world after a massive global
conflict, this connection of American politics to Biblical destiny remains. Invocations of
religious rhetoric to establish, justify, and defend America’s national political destiny are used
with some regularity, as evidenced by the propensity of American evangelicals to refer to
President Trump as King Cyrus. And even today, such intertwining of religion and politics is not
exclusive to a small, fringe group of Christian conservatives. According to the Pew Research
Center, in the 2020 presidential election 78% of white evangelical Protestants, who make up
nearly 25% of the vote nationwide, voted for President Trump and continue to elevate him to the
�Winton 34
status of a Biblical ruler.138 There is a sustained connection between American politics and
Biblical prophecy, and such a connection continues to influence American life even today.
138
Gregory A. Smith, “White Christians continue to favor Trump over Biden, but support has slipped,” Pew
Research Center, Oct. 13, 2020, accessed Nov. 28, 2020,
https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/10/13/white-christians-continue-to-favor-trump-over-biden-but-support
-has-slipped/.
�Winton 35
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PRIMARY SOURCES:
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“what is Life without Liberty?” Asks Daniels -- Pan-American Sentiment from Naon -Selectives’ Best Gift to Country is Prompt Response to Questionnaire, Says Crowder.”
The Washington Post, Dec. 24, 1917.
Grayson, Cary T. “The Religion of Woodrow Wilson.” February 3, 1924.
http://presidentwilson.org/items/show/22351.
Grew, Joseph. Memorandum to President Harry S. Truman. May 1, 1945.
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entid=NA&pagenumber=2.
Miller, Merle. Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman. New York, NY: Berkeley, 1974.
O’Sullivan, John L. “The great nation of futurity.” The United States Democratic Review 6, no. 23
(1839): 426-430.
Riley, William Bell. The Evolution of the Kingdom. New York, NY: Charles C. Cook, 1913.
Scofield, Cyrus I. The Scofield Reference Bible. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1909.
Snowden, James H. "Summary of Objections to Premillenarianism." Biblical World 53 (1919): 165-173.
Stettinius, Edward. Letter to President Harry S. Truman. April 18, 1945.
https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/edward-stettinius-harry-s-truman.
Truman, Harry S. “Address at the Cornerstone Laying of the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church.”
Washington, D.C., April 3, 1951.
�Winton 36
https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/68/address-cornerstone-laying-newyork-avenue-presbyterian-church.
Truman, Harry S. “Address in Little Rock at the Dedication of the World War Memorial Park.”
Little Rock, AR. June 11, 1949.
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orld-war-memorial-park.
Truman, Harry S. “Address at the Unveiling of a Memorial Carillon in Arlington National Cemetery.”
Arlington, VA. December 21, 1949.
https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-unveiling-memorial-carillon-arli
ngton-national-cemetery.
Truman, Harry S. “Address to the Washington Pilgrimage of American Churchmen.”
Washington, D.C. September 28, 1951.
https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-washington-pilgrimage-america
n-churchmen.
Truman, Harry S. Congressional Record. 76th Congress, 1st Session, 1939. Volume 84, Part 13.
Appendix.
Truman, Harry S. Memoirs. 2 vols. Garden City, NY: Double Day, 1955-1956.
Truman, Harry S. Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman, edited by R.H. Ferrell. New
York, NY: Harper and Row, 1980.
Truman, Harry S. “Radio Address as Part of the Program ‘Religion in American Life.’” October 30,
1949.
https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/radio-address-part-the-program-religion-am
erican-life.
�Winton 37
Truman, Harry S. “Recognition of Israel.” Press Release. May 14, 1948.
https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/draft-recognition-israel.
Truman, Harry S. “Remarks in Alexandria, VA at the Cornerstone Laying of the Westminster
Presbyterian Church.” Alexandria, VA. November 23, 1952.
https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-alexandria-va-the-cornerstone-layin
g-the-westminster-presbyterian-church.
Wilson, Woodrow. “Day of Prayer Declared.” Press Statement. May 11, 1918.
http://presidentwilson.org/items/show/34288.
Wilson, Woodrow. “Food Administration.” Press Statement. October 27, 1917.
http://presidentwilson.org/items/show/34084.
Wilson, Woodrow. Letter to Thomas F. Logan. November 8, 1918.
http://presidentwilson.org/items/show/27605.
Wilson, Woodrow. “State of the Union Message.” December 7, 1920.
https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/state-of-the-union-address-109/.
Wilson, Woodrow. “Thanksgiving Day Proclaimed.” Press Statement. November 5, 1919.
http://presidentwilson.org/items/show/34322.
Wilson, Woodrow. “The Bible and Progress.” Denver, CO. May 7, 1911.
http://frontiers.loc.gov/service/gdc/scd0001/2012/20120129002bi/20120129002bi.pdf.
Wilson, Woodrow. “The Pueblo Speech.” Pueblo, CO. September 25, 1919.
https://voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/wilson-the-pueblo-speech-speech-text/.
Wise, Stephen. Challenging Years: The Autobiography of Stephen Wise. New York, NY: Putnam, 1949.
�Winton 38
SECONDARY SOURCES:
Burnidge, Cara Lee. A Peaceful Conquest: Woodrow Wilson, Religion, and the New World Order.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2016.
Cannon, Mae Elise. “Mischief Making in Palestine: American Protestant Christian Attitudes toward the
Holy Land, 1917-1949.” In Comprehending Christian Zionism: Perspectives in
Comparison, edited by Gӧran Gunner and Robert O. Smith, 231-255. Minneapolis, MN:
Fortress Press, 2014.
Davidson, Lawrence. “Christian Zionism as a Representation of American Manifest Destiny.” Critique:
Critical Middle Eastern Studies 14, no. 2 (2005): 157-169.
Davidson, Lawrence. “The Past as Prelude: Zionism and the Betrayal of American Democratic
Principles, 1917-1948.” Journal of Palestine Studies 31, no. 3 (2002): 21-35.
Durbin, Sean. “Walking in the Mantle of Esther: "Political" Action as "Religious" Practice.” In
Comprehending Christian Zionism: Perspectives in Comparison, edited by Gӧran Gunner
and Robert O. Smith, 85-124. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2014.
Haija, Rammy M. “The Armageddon Lobby: Dispensationalist Christian Zionism and the Shaping of
US Policy Towards Israel-Palestine.” Holy Land Studies 5, no. 1 (2006): 75-95.
Mearsheimer, John J., and Stephen M. Walt. The Israel Lobby and US Foreign Policy. New York, NY:
Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2007.
Merkley, Paul C. American Presidents, Religion, and Israel: The Heirs of Cyrus. Westport, CT: Praeger
Publishers, 2004.
Merkley, Paul C. The Politics of Christian Zionism, 1891-1948. London, England: Routledge, 1998.
Merkley Paul C. “Zionists and Christian Restorationists.” Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish
Studies 3 (1993): 93-100.
�Winton 39
Miano, Peter J. “Mainstream Christian Zionism,” In Prophetic Voices on Middle East Peace: A Jewish,
Christian, and Humanist Primer on Colonialism, Zionism, and Nationalism in the Middle
East, edited by Thomas E. Phillips, Peter J. Miano, Jason Mitchell, 163-186. Claremont,
CA: Claremont Press, 2016.
Reuther, Rosemary Radford. “Christian Zionism and Mainline Western Christian Churches.” In
Comprehending Christian Zionism: Perspectives in Comparison, edited by Gӧran Gunner
and Robert O. Smith, 179-190. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2014.
Smith, Gary Scott. Religion in the Oval Office: The Religious Lives of American Presidents. Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Smith, Gregory A. “White Christians continue to favor Trump over Biden, but support has slipped.” Pew
Research Center, Oct. 13, 2020. Accessed Nov. 28, 2020.
https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/10/13/white-christians-continue-to-favor-tru
mp-over-biden-but-support-has-slipped/.
Stewart, Katherine. “Why Trump Reigns as King Cyrus.” New York Times, Dec. 31, 2018. Accessed
Oct. 26, 2020.
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/31/opinion/trump-evangelicals-cyrus-king.html.
Weber, Timothy P. On the Road to Armageddon: How Evangelicals Became Israel's Best Friend. Grand
Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2004.
�
Dublin Core
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Senior Presentations Archive
Description
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This archive contains materials from Wagner’s annual ‘Senior Presentations.’ This event honors outstanding students from each discipline who completed their Senior Learning Community project with excellence. The work is representative of Wagner’s highest standards, and is exemplary of the diversity of subject matter, public-facing scholarship, and civic-minded professionalism our students have attained through their four years here. These students were specially invited to present their work in a formal setting, traditionally the day of Baccalaureate. Students are encouraged to present their work in a format appropriate for their discipline, and so, the presentations vary in their format. Some might be in the form of a short video, or paper abstracts, while others might be posters or music clips. We expect this archive to serve as a resource for generations to come. Congratulations to our Seniors!
Date
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2017 -
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
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Date Digital
2021
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2021_History_Winton
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Margaret Winton
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5/1/2021
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“The Shining City Upon the Hill:” Christian Zionism and the Politics of Woodrow Wilson & Harry S. Truman
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Dr. Alison Smith
History
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word file
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40 pages
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eng
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
History
-
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25a233ab478ebdc909837c3d68485176
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President Clarence C. Stoughton Collection - Correspondence from WWII
Description
An account of the resource
Letters received by Wagner College President Clarence C. Stoughton from current and former Wagner students while they were stationed all over the world during WWII. test
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http://library.wagner.edu/wagnerarchive/StoughtonPDF/Jensen1.pdf
Text
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“For unto you is born this day in the city of David a Saviour which is Christ the Lord.” Luke 2:11
Dear friends,
WITH ALL GOOD WISHES FOR A VERY HAPPY CHRISTMAS
God bless and keep you under His care. Thanks again for all the pleasant memories, which are mine, of times spent at Wagner. Forgive me for taking this space to
[Page 2]
tell you what great news it was to hear about Wagner giving me a degree. It certainly was hard to break away from my class and the school that last year, but I trust it will be soon when we can meet everyone again at a grand post-war reunion.
Irving Jensen
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Jensen1
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Jensen, Irving Lester
Date
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12/8/1944
Title
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[Greeting Card ca. December 8, 1944] [to] friends
Description
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In this Christmas card Jensen tells Stoughton how happy he is that Wagner granted him a degree.
Type
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text
Format
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application/pdf
Source
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Wagner College Archive, Horrmann Library
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eng
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
Is Part Of
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A complete index to the letters in this collection can be found here: http://library.wagner.edu/wagnerarchive/StoughtonPDF/Correspondence index.pdf
-
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0b5ba968f4e30be260d68afc14f85589
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President Clarence C. Stoughton Collection - Correspondence from WWII
Description
An account of the resource
Letters received by Wagner College President Clarence C. Stoughton from current and former Wagner students while they were stationed all over the world during WWII. test
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http://library.wagner.edu/wagnerarchive/StoughtonPDF/Klare1.pdf
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3 Platoon - Co. “A”
385 Port Bu T.C.
Camp Stoneman
Pittsburg, Calif.
Dear Dr. Stoughton,
First I will have to ask you to excuse the appearance of this letter. Writing facilities are very limited so I must write on the top of my bed. I guess from your experience during the last war that you can appreciate the difficulty of writing letters.
A long time has passed since I first wrote to you but as you can see from my new address a long distance has come between us and many new experiences have kept me tired in body and mind.
My thoughts are often with Wagner and the trying times she will face along with the rest of the world. And because the year I spent with her meant so much to me my prayers are always for the survival as the institution I knew her to be – dedicated to the highest ideals of Christian education.
When I last spoke to you I told you of all the money I had spent on my eye. I am sure you believed me but if any of the trustees of the college should desire it I could send them a list of the doctors I had treat me and the money that was spent. I told you too of the large sum that was spent and still is being spent in an effort to restore my brothers baby that was stricken with sleeping sickness.
At the time I entered the army I took out the full $10,000 worth of
[Page 2]
insurance. I made my mother the beneficiary of the policy and she has in turn agreed to assign a certain sum of that to Wagner should I lose my life during the war. In the meantime however I am going to try to send at intervals certain – shall I say – token sums which I hope will be acceptable in the spirit I shall make them in.
The transportation outfit I am in is going to be trained to unload ships at various points where supply lines are necessary which means almost anywhere I guess; and I do not think many more weeks will pass before we embark. I would ask one favor if I may and this is my desire to get a copy of the book we used in first year English. It was called “The Art of Composition” by Blanchard. The intellectual life almost seems stifled at times and I yearn to use it for something that will give me some pleasure. Prof. Kleintop made the use of that book so interesting I know that I shall profit from it and at the same time keep a grasp on my real self that often must be submerged and subjugated for the work that must be done for the common good. Perhaps some student would be willing to handle the matter for me. If that can be arranged upon being told the cost I will mail a money order and then the book can be sent to me.
Please remember me to all the professors especially to Prof. Kleintop to whom I owe so much for his tireless effort to show us the truth and beauty that can be found in the life of learning and honest thought.
Sincerely,
Edwin Klare
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Klare1
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Klare, Edwin
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[Letter ca. 1942] Camp Stoneman, Pittsburg, Calif. [to] Dr. Stoughton
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Kleintop, Milton
Blanchard, Frederic T. (Frederic Thomas), 1878-. The art of composition.
Description
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Klare writes of various health and money issues facing him and his family and expresses concern about paying what he owes to Wagner. He also requests a copy of the book by Blanchard used in his first-year English class by Professor Kleintop.
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text
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eng
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
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A complete index to the letters in this collection can be found here: http://library.wagner.edu/wagnerarchive/StoughtonPDF/Correspondence index.pdf
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ecec0a3bdbcb2235e77b6ae23e6acb1d
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President Clarence C. Stoughton Collection - Correspondence from WWII
Description
An account of the resource
Letters received by Wagner College President Clarence C. Stoughton from current and former Wagner students while they were stationed all over the world during WWII. test
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http://library.wagner.edu/wagnerarchive/StoughtonPDF/Klare3.pdf
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AMERICAN RED CROSS
Sgt. Edwin H. Klare
32426782
Co A
385 Port Bu T.C.
Camp Stoneman
Pittsburg, Calif.
Dear Dr. Stoughton,
I have enclosed a money order which I hope you will give to the treasurer. I regret that I was unable to continue as I had said I would, but my brothers illness which you know of from my last letter meant that I had to help out as much as I could. He is getting along very well now and expects to return to work soon. Warren’s illness was not quite as serious as it could have been. No spots or cavities but was on the verge and he had to have bed rest before he did get tuberculosis.
We have been going through very rigorous training and as you can see from my new title, I have made some progress. Although my mailing address is still Camp Stoneman, I have been stationed at Camp Knight in Oakland where Army methods of transportation are taught. The outfit is divided between the two camps now
[Page 2]
and we are in fact being staged for our voyage somewhere. Whether it will materialize or not is the subject of our rumor clinic which you know exists in all army outfits.
I have been looking forward to the Wagner literature that I have been receiving and I hope that I shall continue to get it. As I told you in another letter, I am deeply concerned with Wagners future and I follow avidly the news that the Bulletin reveals. I hope that she shall as far as possible be a symbol of Christian culture especially now when the whole world seems to have lost sight of His message. Yours is the responsibility and [promise] of seeing Wagner through this crisis and my thoughts are often with you — for your strength, courage, and success.
Sincerely,
Edwin Klare
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Klare3
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Klare, Edwin
Title
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[Letter ca. 1943] Camp Stoneman, Pittsburg, Calif. [to] Dr. Stoughton
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Camp Knight (Calif.)
Description
An account of the resource
Klare sends a money order for some of his debt and writes of his brother's illness. He looks forward to the Wagner material he receives and thinks of Stoughton as he leads Wagner through the crisis of war.
Type
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text
Format
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application/pdf
Source
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Wagner College Archive, Horrmann Library
Language
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eng
Contributor
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Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
Is Part Of
A related resource in which the described resource is physically or logically included.
A complete index to the letters in this collection can be found here: http://library.wagner.edu/wagnerarchive/StoughtonPDF/Correspondence index.pdf
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https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/1909/archive/files/681316ab052d49815229f5c6be25f086.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=Qj1u%7EitcWEaz1Aj2C1cv5%7EwfUdEA-liUU8FT6TOcsSqC0WbDrn9ZogXVeXjHNpLfvChc6863oSVG5M1v7S5gF5o3%7EujVIFLsUY1OJS5an7pzUsTk-1vj7rfI5P43EYet8OKOZB2YJSZitPLHyjVn1gJNSDc3qMsJvywU84vA--BTXvqhVtAu7bYWtY%7EB5yYPl5%7Epq-ZBOga8Kp1KoyVpu9QkKt9w56J0-D3j28HJE7j1YjYNF%7ENK8TjgcWtFYqcB4XdQSWTQvcoSABB%7EU7HDl8uNv5m28ck0JCt-xYdi2W6gFpzbj4AaAOdiEIA2wmYgx7y9zv0q82bat9eCfSbSlQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
183fa1f5645ec77afe4daeab159a87d7
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
President Clarence C. Stoughton Collection - Correspondence from WWII
Description
An account of the resource
Letters received by Wagner College President Clarence C. Stoughton from current and former Wagner students while they were stationed all over the world during WWII. test
Access Rights
Information about who can access the resource or an indication of its security status. Access Rights may include information regarding access or restrictions based on privacy, security, or other policies.
Please contact the Horrmann Library at Wagner College for rights to use this digital image.
Document
A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text.
Date Digital
2014
Original Format
If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
http://library.wagner.edu/wagnerarchive/StoughtonPDF/Klare5.pdf
Text
Any textual data included in the document.
PERSIAN GULF COMMAND
Sgt Edwin H. Klare
32426782
668 Pt Co TC
APO 795 c/o PM NY
NY U.S.A.
Dear Dr. Stoughton,
Enclosed are three money orders that will indicate that I haven’t forgotten about the letter I wrote to you a short time before I came overseas. I only wish though that I could have been just a little more faithful. One is dated from Dec. 1943 and since they are only valid for a year I suggest that it be cashed immediately.
It is going on 19 months that I have left the United States and since that time I have seen a good part of the world. Such a long time has passed since then so I suppose I can mention that on our way here we
[Page 2]
made port at New Zealand, Australia, Ceylon and India. Since we arrived in Iran I have been stationed at Khorramshahr – a not too pleasant place noted chiefly for hard work, heat and dust. There is little to be learned here too except to see how poor and dirty some humans can be and yet live. On three occasions though I have been very fortunate. A year ago in Sept. I spent several days in Hamadan. Recalling your Persian history you will remember that in the time of Darius when Persia was a great world power (it seems hard to believe that that could ever have been true) Hamadan was a great city and a great trading center between east and west. We climbed into the mountains one day and saw inscriptions that Darius and Cyrus had carved there proclaiming their power and charity. Last May I spent three days in Isfahan. Isfahan was once called
[Page 3]
half the world and even to-day it stands as a beautiful architectural monument to the ruler who helped build it; Shah Abbas. The splendid design of the ancient government buildings and mosques with their many tile patterns in blazing colors is hard to describe. The bazaar itself with miles of covered streets was a revelation. In there it was possible to buy almost any type of ware and in many instances to see those things being made with the crudest tools.
Just recently I went to the Recreation Camp at Teheran. Teheran in many respects is a modern city with a large number of modern buildings but unfortunately they didn’t plan on a few very essential conveniences like running water and sewerage systems. Automobiles are very evident along with camel caravans. A large number of tours are planned and I visited the Gulestan Palace museums containing old Persian pieces and went to the old city
[Page 4]
of Rey that now is nothing more than a pile of ruins. From these trips and little gleanings of information I picked up here and there I was surprised to learn of the great culture that once flourished here. It is sad to look at the people to-day. All over there is poverty. It is unusual to see people clothed in other than rags and walking barefooted.
Please remember me to Dean Kleintop and accept my wishes for a joyous Christmas season.
Sincerely,
Edwin Klare
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Identifier
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Klare5
Creator
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Klare, Edwin
Title
A name given to the resource
[Letter ca. 1944] [to] Dr. Stoughton
Subject
The topic of the resource
?Abb?s I, Shah of Iran, 1571-1629
Khurramshahr (Iran)
Tehran (Iran)
Description
An account of the resource
Klare sends more money orders for his debt. Writes of having travelled many places since leaving the U.S. Currently stationed in Iran. Writes of various cities visited and the Persian history and culture he is learning about while there. Expresses sadness over the ruins and poverty that currently exist in Iran.
Type
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text
Format
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application/pdf
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Wagner College Archive, Horrmann Library
Language
A language of the resource
eng
Contributor
An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource
Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
Is Part Of
A related resource in which the described resource is physically or logically included.
A complete index to the letters in this collection can be found here: http://library.wagner.edu/wagnerarchive/StoughtonPDF/Correspondence index.pdf
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/1909/archive/files/1777b50ec5557bdefcc7ebdb4919026e.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=LdTV%7Ev-%7EUG6hEFpjKP69KOiFxWTfka2WW6qTmH%7EmzX4YoCUZFaUM5-ptTBdANvY90os1yYHNBTGwTdA996QGjK19VrnkrLyxjtoPk%7EF7AIVk0F1nraCzM8S2xCHnOimKa6dQobyayL9lnaYG2ProbTWztPEHq85JpGfYbDI8jAAmmdS8gPOP31etc3SQdSCcn0-vq28qwaa%7Eh4-iJNkh62V5yvK%7Er0XXBl-uQPKy29v2CZqsEObaDeq0uPhHuLQd8Xa4DVwMLUsMHXCECN9xrffPaSfBa8B0Qr5Zz0VwLPADkWb3Mfd6rlRDrTqE5fKD0nSOmu9xgDEdBTG3mdB6kA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
3113e7894d67744bd7ae290acdc491eb
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
President Clarence C. Stoughton Collection - Correspondence from WWII
Description
An account of the resource
Letters received by Wagner College President Clarence C. Stoughton from current and former Wagner students while they were stationed all over the world during WWII. test
Access Rights
Information about who can access the resource or an indication of its security status. Access Rights may include information regarding access or restrictions based on privacy, security, or other policies.
Please contact the Horrmann Library at Wagner College for rights to use this digital image.
Document
A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text.
Date Digital
2014
Original Format
If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
http://library.wagner.edu/wagnerarchive/StoughtonPDF/Drescher2.pdf
Text
Any textual data included in the document.
12/6/42
Dear Sir,
Received your letter yesterday, & enjoyed it very much. I hope you won’t mind my quick response, but I try to answer as quickly as possible, due to the lack of time we are allowed.
Our chaplain has gotten me an appointment with the minister of St. Mark’s church in town, so I’m hoping to remain in church work thru this. I’ve joined the Barksdale Glee Club and Choir, and am remaining in that type of work. I really enjoyed singing with the Wagner choir & hope to once again, become a member.
My attempt to become a cadet was stopped before it even started. I get very dizzy when I exercise, or bend over, so guess I
[Page 2]
will have to remain on the ground. I have however, submitted an officer’s candidate application with the hope that I’ll be selected to go into officer’s training. It hardly seems possible that I have been in the aircorps nearly 6 months now. It seems only yesterday, that I was back in New York.
Soon, I intend to apply for a furlough, and hope that I will be able to get a short one. They only give 7 day furloughs here. Seven days, however, are better than no days at all. About my type of work in this war; it is Power turret.
Power turrets are the gun turrets on the bombers. They are compact, and are run either by hydraulics, electricity, or a combination of both. Some of our bombers, the Fortress & Consolidated
[Page 3]
as examples, have three turrets on them. There are rumors of a new plane that will be excellent, but that is highly restricted, and I can’t say more. I would like to tell you all about my work, but it, also, is restricted. I can say this much, however, my job is to keep these turrets in perfect running condition. The gun sights must also be maintained by P.T. men.
We are specialists and should have ratings, but the aircorps is slow in giving their promotions. We expect a promotion soon. Well, guess I had better close now, and get back to work on the line. Although today is Sunday, we work just the same.
Till my next letter then,
[Page 4]
I am,
Sincerely,
Pvt. Gordon Drescher
P.S. Thanks again for your fine letter, which I certainly appreciated. Please pardon my poor writing, but I’ve always had a poor hand.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
Drescher2
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Drescher, Gordon
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
12/6/1942
Title
A name given to the resource
[Letter] 1942 December 6 [to] Sir
Subject
The topic of the resource
Power turrets
Louisiana
Description
An account of the resource
Drescher writes of joining the Barksdale Glee Club and Choir and of his hope to do church work at St. Mark's. He says he has submitted an officer's candidate application since he is unable to be a cadet due to dizzy spells. Drescher also describes power turrets in detail and the importance of keeping them in perfect condition.
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
text
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Wagner College Archive, Horrmann Library
Language
A language of the resource
eng
Contributor
An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource
Wagner College, Staten Island, NY
Is Part Of
A related resource in which the described resource is physically or logically included.
A complete index to the letters in this collection can be found here: http://library.wagner.edu/wagnerarchive/StoughtonPDF/Correspondence index.pdf